FUNDAMENTALS 
of BUSINESS 



JACKSON AND CODY 


library of congress 


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FUNDAMENTALS 
of BUSINESS 


By WILLIAM MARVIN JACKSON 

* A 

FORMERLY EDUCATIONAL DIRECTOR AND EMPLOYMENT 
MANAGER OF THE NATIONAL CITY BANK OF NEW YORK, 
NOW DIRECTOR OF PERSONNEL FOR THE NEW YORK TIMES. 
AUTHOR OF “BUSINESS GUIDANCE FOR YOUNG WORKERS,” 
“THE BUSINESS STRUCTURE," ETC. 

Edited with Exercises by SH ERWIN CODY 

AUTHOR OF “HOW TO DO BUSINESS BY LETTER,” “100% 
SELF-CORRECTING COURSE IN ENGLISH,” “BUSINESS ABIL¬ 
ITY DEVELOPMENT COURSE,” ETC. 


« •> ■» 


Published by the Business Ability Institute, Rochester , N. Y. 






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Copyright, 1923, 

By SHERWIN CODY 



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PREFACE 


This book has been written by one who knows better how a 
business man would train a young employee than perhaps any 
one else in the United States. Not only has every detail of the 
subject been studied with the greatest care over a period of years, 
but Mr. Jackson has been actually successful to an unusual degree 
in the spirit of his appeal to young office workers, especially 
boys and young men, but the talks are just as applicable to girls 
who may become private secretaries, since they are really assistant 
executives. The “Talks by the Morale Officer” are actual talks 
reduced to writing, and they reach the heart of the young worker. 
Any one who reads them aloud in a sympathetic tone of voice 
cannot help feeling the force of their inspiration. 

The material in this book was first worked out for the Office 
Boys’ Training School at the Boys’ Club (New York City), and 
as director of the Boys’ Employment Department of the West 
Side Y. M. C. A. (New York) Mr. Jackson had opportunity to 
confirm his observations. Then as educational director of the 
National City Bank (the largest national bank in America, and 
known as perhaps the best organized institution of the kind) and 
later employment and personnel manager, he had opportunity to 
apply these principles more widely, and found that they were 
just as useful to girls who are entering business and who ought 
to learn to assume more responsibility if they wish to get ahead. 
The chief handicap of women in business has undoubtedly been 
their own mental backwardness in thinking that they are capable 
of being executives, whereas all boys instinctively conceive them¬ 
selves as potential presidents of corporations. The very essence 
of a good private secretary is to be capable of taking the place 

and doing much of the work of a higher executive. Girls and 

• • • 
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IV 


PREFACE 


women make the best private secretaries in the world, and what 
they need for success in this secretarial work is training in being 
potential executives, just the same as the boys. They need to 
get around to see things and learn how business is done. Boys 
need this training badly—they seldom get it in the systematic 
fashion Mr. Jackson here outlines. But girls who ought to 
become private secretaries need it just as much, I am almost 
tempted to say more. 

Mr. Jackson says: “It was as Educational Director of the 
National City Bank of New York that I had the best opportunity 
to observe at first hand the effectiveness of practical training and 
instruction as applied to the young workers, both boys and girls. 
About one hundred and fifty boys and young men under twenty 
were given daily instruction in the things which would make 
them most useful in their daily work and prepare them for execu¬ 
tive positions of importance in the future. Every one agreed 
that the efficiency of these employees was decidedly improved, and 
the subsequent progress of these ‘students’ is irrefutable evidence 
of the efficacy of a program of this kind. This specialized instruc¬ 
tion was not confined, however, to the younger employees—over 
six hundred employees of all ages took part in the educational 
program with credit to themselves and to the institution. Each 
year this number has steadily increased, until to-day I understand 
that over one thousand employees are enrolled in the educational 
and training classes. 

“While the wisdom and foresight of Mr. Frank A. Vanderlip, 
former president of the bank, made the development of this great 
practical training work possible, credit for the greater part of 
the planning and work of organization is due to Mr. F. C. Schwedt- 
man, one of the vice presidents. My sincere thanks are due 
especially to the following assistance in preparing the lessons 
indicated: 

Mr. J. A. Sanders, of Dallas, Tex.—Real Estate; 

Mr. E. C. Van Dyke, of New York—Railroad Information; 

Mr. W. F. Schmidt, of New York—Telephone Information; 

Miss Florence Rollins, of New York—Filing.” 

Sherwin Cody, 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER page 

I. To the Student. 7 

Talk No. i by the Morale Officer on Ordinary 

or Extraordinary.11 

II. Learning to Speak Distinctly.15 

Talk No. 2 on “Punch”.22 

III. Letter-Writing in Business.25 

Talk No. 3 on What Constitutes the Excep¬ 
tional Employee.30 

IV. Educational Fundamentals.33 

ioo-Word Spelling Test.36 

National Ability Test on English .... 38 

Test on Addition and Copying Speed ... 40 

Talk No. 4 on Stickability.42 

V. Telephoning.44 

Talk No. 5 on the Best Recommendation— 

a Good Face.61 

VI. Typewriting.64 

Talk No. 6 on Push and Pull.69 

VII. Postal Information.71 

Talk No. 7 on Work.79 

VIII. Telegrams .82 

Talk No. 8 on Mental and Physical Alertness 86 

IX. Filing.91 

Talk No. 9 on Teamwork in Business . . . 100 

The Little Things.103 


v 

















VI 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER PAGE 

X. Professional Bookkeeping.106 

Talk No. io on Keeping in Good Spirits . . hi 

XI. Adding Machine Operation.113 

Talk No. ii on the Desire to Learn . . . 127 

XII. Money, Credit, Banking.130 

Talk No. 12 on True Advancement . . . . 137 

XIII. City Geography and Transportation . . . 141 

> Talk No. 13 on Errands.148 

XIV. Railroad Information.151 

* Talk No. 14 on Keeping the Office Clean . . 158 

XV. Stock and Supplies.161 

Talk No. 15 on How to Keep Busy When 

• There’s Nothing to Do.164 

XVI. Business Organization.168 

Talk No. 16 on Meeting People.174 

XVII. Real Estate.177 

Talk No. 17 on Starting Your Career . . . 187 

Talk No. 18 to Girls.189 

Talk No. 19 on Small Duties of the Office 

r 

Assistant.194 

Final. Help for Students to Secure Positions . . 198 

Talk No. 20 on Office-Grams—Short Re¬ 
minders .202 














FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


CHAPTER I 

To the Student 

Making good in this world is a matter of self-help—it depends 
upon one’s capacity to manage his affairs, to look out for his daily 
living, to be able to take care of himself at all times and under all 
circumstances. From fourteen years of age on, each person is 
largely responsible to himself for his conduct in life. 

Heretofore others have had more to do with your life than 
you have, others have had more to say about your actions than 
you. But from now on, to a large extent you will have control of 
your own life. If you get along well it will be because you so 
direct it. If you do not make progress, you alone will be to blame. 
Don’t imagine that luck, or lack of opportunities, or bad surround¬ 
ings have anything to do with whether or not you succeed. There 
may be obstacles for you to overcome, but remember this: nothing 
can keep the right kind of man or woman down. Nothing can 
keep any one with grit from pulling through. Nothing can keep 
any one who has stuff in him from making a name for himself. 

From now on it is strictly up to you to acquire knowledge and 
learn how to do things by yourself. If you will not make yourself 
learn, no one will. If you will not so order your life that from 
this day on you steadily climb up the ladder of success, no one can 
make you. Now is the time, therefore, that you should begin to 
cultivate “self-help.” 

In taking the course offered in this book you are given ample 
opportunity to develop this important capacity, to show that you 
know how to do things on your own initiative. Some young 

i::7 


8 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


people have been so used to having everything planned for them, 
so used to having their problems solved for them that they feel 

lost the moment they are left to take care of themselves. While 

* 

taking this course each student is largely his own master. He 
must solve his own problems and keep himself at work. Of 
course, you must be given instruction in telephoning, switchboard 
operating, and the like, by those in business who know more about 
it than you do, but as far as practicable each student will be left 
to work out his own salvation. In taking this course you can 
turn yourself loose completely, you can do your very best without 
the least hindrance. You are urged to learn all you can, and do 
your own thinking and planning. Many young people do not do 
much thinking. They are used to letting their minds wander. 
They do not know how to see ahead—to plan. The purpose of 
this course is to help you to learn how to think and how to plan, 
to develop originality and initiative, to help you develop those 
qualities which are absolutely necessary to make good in a job 
and rise to an important executive position. 

In developing self-help, thoroughness is essential. Carelessness, 
indifference, half-heartedness breed failure, breed incapacity for 
taking care of one’s self. Here is one rule that you must follow 
if this course is to do you any good: Don’t pass over a single 
lesson without understanding it thoroughly. It is better to take 
one day’s work and master it than to get over several days’ lessons 
in a slipshod manner. 

Skimming over things is a result of a lack of self-control. Of 
course every one thinks that he is master of himself. But if a 
student is not thorough, if he is shallow, if he lets things get by 
him without understanding them, something is bound to be wrong 
—that student shows an inability to take care of himself. If 
there is one quality that is more important than the others in 
making good in the business world it is thoroughness. The care¬ 
ful, painstaking, accurate worker is bound to make good. The 
inaccurate, careless worker who lets things get by him without 
understanding them is destined to fail. 

Endeavor to put your whole heart into the study of these lessons 


TO THE STUDENT 


9 

and into the doing of the exercises. You will doubtless find the 

course different from any you have heretofore had, and for that 

reason interesting, at first. Do not let your interest wane. There 
will be every opportunity for the display of initiative and orig¬ 
inality—two important business traits. Thus you will have an 
opportunity even now to begin to form an estimate of your ability 
to make good in business, of your likelihood of success in the 
business world. Should it happen that you do not intend entering 
business or following a business or professional career, you will 

find that every lesson will prove helpful sooner or later, anyway. 

Do not think, therefore, that you will derive no benefit from these 
lessons. 

Another thing: Do not think that any of the facts, or sugges¬ 
tions, or hints are too small or trivial. The knowledge and mas¬ 
tery of these “little things,” and many others not mentioned, is 
essential if you desire to get the right start. 

The Business Notebook 

The course outlined in this book will require many visits to 
business offices, banks, etc., for the purpose of seeing how things 
look and how business is carried on. Many persons go on visits 
of that sort and come back without remembering much, if any¬ 
thing, of what they have seen. 

There is just one way in which this new sort of study can be 
made a success, and that is by keeping a business notebook. 

The ordinary stenographer’s notebook open at the end will do 
very well, if nothing more permanent is available. These note¬ 
books may be had almost anywhere for ten cents. 

Before a trip is undertaken the observer should know just what 
he is expected to look for. Each question should be written in 
the notebook with a space of two or three lines after it in which 
notes may be made of what is observed. 

Notes made on a trip are usually brief and imperfect. It is 
very desirable that they should be written up properly in a dupli¬ 
cate notebook for permanent reference. It is desirable, therefore, 


10 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


that each student have two notebooks, a small one for rough notes 
made on trips, and a larger one for permanent notes, to be kept 
as a reference book. With this permanent book it will be possible 
to go back and review the work, and even when one gets a position 
in a business office it may be useful to be able to refer to some¬ 
thing in that notebook. It should, therefore, be written so that 
its meaning will always be clear and complete. 

Every notebook should have the name and home address of the 
owner written on the first page, near the top. 

Below this should be the date at which the notebook is begun. 

On a third line should be written the general subject to which 
the notebook is devoted. 

Each new subject should be written at the head of a fresh page, 
and should be underscored. This will make it easy at a later time 
to look through the notebook and find what is wanted. Each 
question written down should be numbered. 

Organization of a Local Business Study Club 

Much of the work in this course could be carried out more suc¬ 
cessfully with the help of other students interested in the same 
topics. Two or three persons can work together to advantage, 
and a club group of as many as twenty-five would bring inspiration 
and personal interest into the work. 

Some member of this group who is a good reader can read 
aloud the Talks of the Morale Officer. (You remember it was 
the Morale Officer in the army who went around and gave in¬ 
spirational talks to the men to keep up their spirits when they were 
far from home, and encourage them to fight with the spirit of 
real men.) 

The cooperation of two or three persons (who of course may 
be simply members of one’s own family) is particularly useful 
in the exercises on speaking, telephoning, meeting callers, etc. 

Every business house has the equipment of telephones, adding 
machines, typewriters, etc., which are not used before nine in the 
morning or after five at night, and which will be loaned to ambi- 


ORDINARY OR EXTRAORDINARY 


ii 

tious students who wish them for practice. In some cases this 
must be done under the supervision of some responsible em¬ 
ployee of the house, and in that case it will seem better worth 
taking the trouble for several than for one alone. In other cases 
the future young executives will be given free permission to use 
the business equipment, since there will be full confidence that 
they will not abuse the privilege. 

In all cases where the use of business equipment of any kind 
is loaned after office hours, a sense of decency will cause those 
who benefit from this favor to disturb desks, chairs, and other 
furniture as little as possible, to replace papers and other articles 
in exactly the position in which they were found, and make no 
litter on the floor after the janitor has cleaned it up. And all 
courtesies may be paid for at least by return courtesies. This 
is due to all employers who are willing to cooperate. 

TALK No. i by the Morale Officer on 
Ordinary or Extraordinary 

Nearly every young person wants to be more than ordinary. 
In fact, most young people think that they are more than ordinary. 
Each one has a kind of self-esteem which makes him more or less 
satisfied with himself and causes him to think well of his present 
status and future possibilities. As a result, without good reason 
many persons become self-satisfied. And in spite of poor progress, 
in spite of poor standing as compared with others, they cling to 
the notion that somehow or other they will come out all right some 
day. The thought is, “I may not seem to he ambitious, or I may 
not have a good education (and I really don’t think I need it), 
but I’m all right and I’ll probably surprise people some day. If 
I have good luck I’ll come out pretty well—well enough to suit 
me, anyway.” And thus they hypnotize themselves into a state 
which makes it practically impossible for them to be able 

1. To take advice; 

2. To judge themselves properly; 

3. To see the necessity for action. 


12 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


Such young people have fixed for themselves ordinary places 
in life. They have determined that they will be just the common, 
ordinary kind. About the only place where they will ever accom¬ 
plish anything will be in their imagination. Now, imagination is 
a good thing. But vivid imagination without some ability to execute 
is worthless. It is well nigh useless for one to imagine that some 
day he is going to get somewhere, unless he begins at once to see 
the visible results of his efforts, unless he is able to point out each 
day something done, something accomplished. 

It is the ordinary person who in business or in school is contented 
to work along in a half-hearted, careless manner and deceive him¬ 
self with the belief that something will happen, something will turn 
up which will give him a better place, which will pick him up 
and place him on a higher rung of the ladder of success. It is 
the ordinary person who does not think to stop occasionally to 
see if he is getting somewhere, who is not constantly thinking of 
learning and making progress, who knows not the joy that comes 
from the knowledge that he is getting ahead. 

Why is it some young people are content to be ordinary? Why 
is it they have no desire to forge ahead and grasp the big things 
which are surely awaiting them if they will but “get a move on” 
themselves, to use an expressive slang phrase? Why is it some 
people live only for the present, think never of the morrow, view 
themselves with entire satisfaction and never feel strong impulses 
surging within their souls to be up and about? Why is it that the 
great world, with its millions of successful, happy people, has no 
call for them, issues no challenge to their latent ambition and 
energies ? And then, why is it that others are always wide-awake, 
full of energy, anxious to learn, willing to work, happy to accom¬ 
plish—are steady and sure in their progress? There is no great 
difference in the amount of sense that people have. There is 
really no very great difference in natural powers or gifts. One 
person has about as much natural-born sense as another. Where, 
then, does the difference come in? What makes young men and 
women at the age of seventeen to twenty, say, so different? The 


ORDINARY OR EXTRAORDINARY 13 

difference lies in the use one makes of his native ability. The 
difference lies in a young person’s inclination to make use of his 
mind, in his willingness to use his powers, and in his anxiety to 
improve himself in every possible way. 

After a certain age every one has his future almost entirely in 
his own hands. He has his making or his undoing in his own 
grasp. He can do with himself as he pleases. He is master of 
his actions, and hence absolutely responsible for what he does. 

If he begins to climb, if he so orders his life that he begins to 
increase in knowledge and improve his natural abilities, if he learns 
to choose the right paths, to form strong helpful friendships, if 
he lives a clean life, if he lives unselfishly, if he gathers strength 
as he goes and gains the confidence of all who know him, it is be¬ 
cause he so wills it. It is because he desires to be not the ordinary 
but the extraordinary type. 

But on the other hand, if he fails to take himself in hand, if 
he takes a loose grip of himself and goes out for immediate 
pleasures, disregarding the higher, the more helpful and lasting 
things, if he begins to step downward, to show weakness instead 
of strength, it is because he so orders it, it is because he wills it. 
He is a self-made failure. 

Every self-made failure has a hundred explanations and excuses 
to give for his failure. Rarely will a man who has failed acknowl¬ 
edge that it is all his own fault. As a rule he will talk about 
hard luck and no chance, and he will never see that he is directly 
the cause of his own doom, that years before he sentenced himself 
to such a fate. 

We cannot all be presidents, but we can all fill as big jobs as 
we fit ourselves for. I have had people say to me, “Don’t make 
young men and women discontented by advising them to try to be 
great or famous. Encourage them to be good plumbers and good 
clerks: these are honorable callings and good men are needed in 
them.” 

But let me tell you something: such positions are indeed honor¬ 
able, and men are needed in them, but there is more room higher 
up. There’s a greater demand for good office managers, and good 


14 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


bank presidents, than there is for good clerks. The danger lies 
not in aspiring too high. The shame is that more employees are 
not aspiring higher. 

The crying need of our nation to-day is men and women of 
unusual ability, of more than ordinary mold, of strength and 
power; men and women of action, of big ambitions, with vision, 
with almighty desires to climb as high as persistent, intelligent 
effort will take them. Don’t be afraid of aspiring too high. Don’t 
let the thought of failure scare you. Reach up as high as you can 
and pull with all your might. 


CHAPTER II 


Learning to Speak Distinctly 

While no one can tolerate a “loud-mouth,” every one when 
talking to his employer or fellow workers should endeavor to 
make himself well understood. Distinct tones show self-con¬ 
fidence; mumbling words show lack of self-confidence and breed 
distrust in the listener. 

It is surprising that most people grow up without ever giving 
any thought to the effect that their manner of speech has upon 
their hearers. And yet most people use their vocal organs more 
than any other part of their body. Most of us say thousands of 
words every day, little realizing that what we say and how we 
say it has a very great deal to do with our progress and success, 
has more to do with what people think of us than anything else. 

If you want to realize, therefore, the best that’s in you, begin 
to-day to learn the proper use of that wonderful instrument, your 
voice. You are used to hearing yourself talk. It sounds perfectly 
natural to you. “Surely,” you think, “there can be nothing wrong 
with the way I talk.” Don’t make that mistake. Don’t be too 
sure of it. 

Employment managers, when asked “What is the first thing 
you notice about an applicant? What one thing is there which 
more than anything else enables you to decide whether you want 
a particular applicant?” will nearly always say immediately, “The 
way he talks,”—not so much what he says, as the way he says it, 
whether clearly and distinctly, or indistinctly and in a mumbling 
tone. 

All of us have noticed the vast difference in people’s ability to 
sing. We absolutely forget or fail to notice the great difference 
in talking ability. And just as the singer whose voice is the 

IS 


I 



16 FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 

most highly trained will usually be the most successful, so in 
business the ability to use one’s voice properly, in conversation 
plays no small part in one’s success. 

Now let us analyze briefly why so many young people fail to 
make themselves understood when reciting, applying fon a posi¬ 
tion, or talking to the “boss.” 

One reason is timidity. Under the circumstances just men¬ 
tioned a boy (and even more a girl) is often afraid. His words 
seem to stick to his tongue—he just can’t turn them loose. 

Another reason is poor judgment. He really doesn’t know 
that he is not talking loudly enough. He perhaps imagines that 
by speaking very quietly he will make a good impression,' but he 
very often overdoes it. 

A third reason is this: Many applicants who lack ambition 
and push, who do not know what it is to put their whole energy 
into living and making good, are unable to speak distinctly be¬ 
cause they lack self-confidence. There seems to be a feeling of 
guilt or self-condemnation, mixed with sullenness, which prevents 
their being able to speak up when under the eye of the teacher or 
of a prospective employer. 

Even those who are not affected by timidity, or poor judgment, 
or lack of ambition often have peculiarities in their speech which 
make it practically impossible for them to make themselves un¬ 
derstood without having to repeat a great deal. 

It is very hard to criticize one’s self fairly with reference to 
many things; but it is particularly difficult for one to realize the 
weaknesses of his speech, of his manner of pronouncing his words. 
Bad habits of speaking and enunciating are the easiest to slip into 
but the hardest to get out of. 

It should be the ambition of every one who hopes for success to 
be able to talk properly, that is, distinctly, clearly, and with well 
rounded tones. When should one begin? Now—to-day. Will it 
be easy to improve? No. Will improvement come quickly? No. 
It will take patience, persistence, and above all the cultivation of 
the ability to listen to one’s self and to compare one’s talk with 
that of other people. This is not the sort of thing that will appeal 


\ 


LEARNING TO SPEAK DISTINCTLY 


17 


to the ordinary person. But in order to make good in this world 
it is often, yes, very often, necessary for us to attend to things 
that don’t appeal to us. 

Assume that you can improve your speech. The assumption 
will doubtless be correct in spite of the fact that you have never 
thought of it before, in spite of the fact that heretofore you have 
assumed that you talked as clearly and as distinctly as anybody. 

Begin to listen to yourself as you talk. Listen through your 
external ears. As a rule we listen to ourselves through our heads 
and through the ears of our mind. We know what we are saying 
without actually listening to it. Go off by yourself and talk in 
your natural way and see how it sounds. Then listen to other 
people. Compare their manner of saying things with yours. 
Make note of any peculiarities. 

Perhaps it would be well to begin with your name. Most people, 
including grown-ups, rarely pronounce their own names distinctly. 
They know it so well themselves they assume that it is easy for 
every one else to catch it. If your name is Elbert Robinson, don’t 
come down strong on “El” and “Rob” and slur over the rest of 
it. People won’t get it. Just this thing happens thousands of 
times every day. 

A teacher in a commercial school who had noted this peculiarity 
gave a demonstration to illustrate how carelessly people pronounce 
their names. He had twenty students stand up and give their 
names. Then he asked the members of the class to tell how many 
names they had understood. The highest number that any student 
gave was eight. All the members of the class seemed to have 
names of one syllable. 

The most common fault of speech is mumbling—that is, trying 
to talk without moving the lips sufficiently. Limber up your lips. 
Don’t be afraid to move them freely. Don’t let them get stiff 
from misuse. 

There may be plenty of lip movement and yet no roundness of 
tone. The words sound flat. We all know how different our 
voice sounds when we talk through a pipe or with our head in a 
barrel. Well, every student who has studied physiology knows 


i8 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


that there are what are called nasal cavities in the head. They 
are almost like a series of pipes, while the mouth is a sort of barrel 
—which simply means that if we try we can make our words sound 
full and resonant without putting our mouths to a pipe or our 
heads in a barrel. Try it. Get off by yourself and learn how to 
use these cavities in giving a full, ringing sound to your words. 

In this connection, however, be careful that you do not talk 
through your nose. Keep your lips moving freely, use plenty of 
breath, and don’t be afraid to open your mouth. A person who 
talks through his nose usually holds his jaw stiff. Practice opening 
your mouth wide. Some of you will discover that it actually 
hurts to move your jaw up and down a few times in succession. 

It is not the purpose of this lesson to go into a technical dis¬ 
cussion of the various methods used by voice specialists to teach 
their pupils how to use their vocal chords properly, how to make 
every effort produce the proper sound. The preceding paragraphs 
give a few hints and suggestions of which the student should 
make the best possible use. It would be well, however, for the 
student to practice the various sounds and combinations of sounds 
contained in the alphabet. If you watch closely you will be sur¬ 
prised to note how the position of your lips and tongue changes. 
No two letters or sounds can be pronounced correctly and dis¬ 
tinctly with the lips or tongue in the same position. Yet in 
actual conversation many people try to do this. They try to say 
“a” with their lips fixed for “e”; or “m” when they are ready 
for “n” and so on. Remember that every word, if spoken 
properly, requires a change—requires effort. 

Take the following sentences, for example. Say them aloud 
distinctly, and notice how hard your lips and tongue have to 
work. 

I came to apply for the position advertised. 

The advertisement appeared in this morning’s paper. 

I am attending night school. 

My name is Henderson Robinson. 

I realize the need of an education. 

Upon my next birthday I’ll be seventeen. 


LEARNING TO SPEAK DISTINCTLY 


19 


It would be a good idea to read aloud several paragraphs every 
day just for the purpose of noticing the various sounds and the 
various formations of the mouth, lips, and tongue necessary to 
pronounce distinctly. This will help you form the habit of 
enunciating clearly in your conversation. 

Try at once to break yourself of the habit of “chopping off” 
your words. People not only do this with their names but with 
a hundred other common words. Words ending in “ing” are 
probably the most poorly pronounced of all. Many boys say, 
“Pm goin’,” and leave off the “d” at the end of “and.” Another 
word often abbreviated is “you.” If you say to another person, 
“What did I tell you?” the last word doesn’t sound like “y-o-u,” 
but rather like “yuh.” 

Many other similar examples could be given. But the im¬ 
portant thing is to make up your mind that you will not “chop 
off” your words, and that you will try hard to put every sound 
into a word that should go in it. 

Don’t forget these suggestions to-day, or to-morrow, or the next 
day. Don’t imagine that there is nothing to it, and that there 
is no necessity for paying attention to this lesson. Make up your 
mind to learn to speak correctly and distinctly, and stay with it 
until you acquire the habit. Few accomplishments will help you 
more in life than this. 

Note:—A local elocution or voice teacher could help a -club 
group or class by a practical talk on use of diaphragm, or how to 
make tones resonant, on breathing, etc. 


Exercises on Oral Messages 

There is constant call in a business office for carrying and de¬ 
livering oral messages, or giving messages over the telephone. 
Many of these messages involve names and addresses, which are 
particularly hard to make clear. There should therefore be prac¬ 
tice in dictating to a class group or club, the members of which 
will write down the names and messages as a means of proving 


20 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


that they have been clearly heard from the person who dictates 
them. Individual students can get at least one friend to dictate 
and listen. Each member of a group should dictate at least one 
message, and if that was not heard clearly by all members, prac¬ 
tice on other messages should be continued until at least one 
message has been given so that it can be written down correctly 
by all. 

The group leader should assign a number to each member up 
to the number of messages given below, and then repeat numbers. 
Each person should then copy from the book into his notebook 
the one message corresponding to the number given him, but 
should not look at any of the other names or messages. During 
the exercise the books should be closed. 

Then the leader should call on each member in turn to read 
the message written in his notebook, while all the other members 
write down the message as read. The reading should be slow 
enough so there will be time to write it down. If any person 
cannot hear he should raise his hand and insist on getting the 
message correctly. Some one should inspect the messages as 
written to see that all are correct. In business no excuse that the 
message could not be heard or understood will be accepted. The 
person who takes the message must insist on understanding, even 
if a dozen repetitions are called for. Spell out difficult names. 

Messages for Dictation 

1. Call on the telephone the Brighton Woolen Co., 20 W. 40, 
Chelsea 3885, and ask Mr. Brockmeyer to call at this office to 
see Mr. Samson at nine o’clock to-morrow morning. 

2. Tell Mr. Ferguson to bill the Broadhead Worsted Mills, 
25 Madison Avenue, for 10,000 letter-heads, 4 reams of second 
sheets, one box of A3 carbon paper, and one gross ink typewriter 
erasers, which Mr. Jonas has delivered but has not billed. 

3. Call on the telephone Simmons & Slade, brokers, at 5 Nassau 
St., Rector 4400, and ask Mr. Trauner if he will speak for a 
moment to Mr. Trafford of the Trades Reporting Bureau. 


LEARNING TO SPEAK DISTINCTLY 


21 


4. Go to the Tower Stores, Inc., 541 West 21st St., and get 
100 plain commercial envelopes, size 6 l / 2 , a ream of plain white 
typewriter bond paper, letter size, weight 4 lbs. Bring direct to 
Mr. Townley as soon as possible. 

5. Write a letter to the Transcontinental Publishing Corpo¬ 
ration, 61 Broadway, or telephone them at Bowling Green 6691, 
asking them if they will enter subscription to the Broadway 
Magazine for one year from April 5, in the name of Ludwig 
Traube, 1402 Lexington Ave., New York City. 

6. Call up the Rhineland Machine Works Co. at Circle 864, 
street address 1737 Broadway, and ask Mr. Patrick Reynolds if 
he received the check sent him yesterday by Mr. Renshaw. Tell 
him Mr. Renshaw is afraid a mistake was made in addressing 
the envelope. 

7. Mr. Isidor Marcuson, 256 Cortlandt St., called this morning 
and wished me to tell you that he had seen Mantell & Sons, 1740 
Bathgate Ave., and their Mr. Manville had promised that he would 
deliver the load of furniture the first thing Wednesday morning. 

8. Cohen & Kimmel, the printers at 67 Vesey St., have sent 
over 5,000 of the circulars by a boy, and report that the rest have 
been delivered to Boyd’s City Directory, 73 Beekman St., together 
with 5,000 return envelopes. 

9. Mr. Louis Guenther of the Guenther Publishing Company, 
29 Broadway, wants to know if Mr. Gude cares to make a finan¬ 
cial statement about the business of the Guarantee Eamily Shoe 
Stores. Mr. Guenther’s number is Whitehall 130. 

10. Call up the insurance department of Pease & Elliman, the 
real estate dealers, at 55 Liberty St., phone Cortlandt 4222, and 
request Mr. Peckham—Josiah Peckham—to call Tuesday morning 
at 11.30, to see Mr. Elliman about renewal of insurance on this 
office. 

Prepare similar messages, using equally hard and unfamiliar 
names, from the telephone or city directory, and bring them to the 
club to be dictated to the other members as described above. 

This exercise should be continued for as many days as may be 
required to give each member a chance to make a satisfactory oral 


22 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


delivery of at least one message. As this is a difficult exercise on 
which to attain perfection, the time to be allotted to it should be 
determined with reference to reserving a sufficient amount of time 
for the other exercises which are to be covered during the course. 


TALK No. 2 by the Morale Officer on 

“Punch” 

A boxer may have many qualifications necessary for a good 
fighter, but unless he has a “punch” he will never win many fights. 
It is the same way in life—it takes “punch” to win. Fighters 
naturally think a great deal of this qualification, and they go to 
great pains to develop it. But somehow or other in this great battle 
of life many people forget all about it; they hardly know that such 
a thing exists. Lack of punch is the cause of more failures than 
anything else. Lack of education has blighted many a man’s hopes ; 
but even the uneducated win out sometimes. Poor early surround¬ 
ings and opportunities have kept many men from climbing; but 
many others have risen above these obstacles. There are many 
reasons why men fail to do their best, but nothing has hindered 
so many people as lack of punch. 

What is punch ? 

It is something that enables one to land a “knock-out blow” to 
every obstacle—big or little—in his path. 

It is something that does away with every bit of hesitation, every 
bit of faltering, every holding-back tendency. 

It is something that makes one tackle everything with vigor, with 
determination, with enthusiasm. 

It is something that whispers to one as he tackles a proposition: 
“You can win.” 

It is something that makes one work all the harder when failure 
stares him in the face, when unforeseen obstacles loom up. 

It is something that takes the words can't, quit, give-up, no use 
to try, take it easy, sloiv up, do it to-morrow entirely out of one’s 
vocabulary. 


“PUNCH” 23 

It is something that makes one believe in his ability, and have 
faith in his future. 

It is something that makes one know that he is getting somewhere. 

A good punch will enable you to disable every adversary, every 
obstacle. Against a good stiff punch, failures, discouraging words, 
lack of education, and inexperience, haven’t a chance. I’ll tell 
you why: Punch will make a man rise above failures, it will make 
discouraging words stir his fighting blood, it will make an unedu¬ 
cated man get busy and learn. 

Often fighters think that they have a good punch until they get 
t in the ring and take a lot of punishment, hut never succeed in 
landing heavily on the other fellow. It’s the same way with 
people in life. Most people think they’ve got punch whether they 
have or not. It is important to find out the real truth early. 

Punch wins. With it a young man is fighting a winning fight. 
Without it he is losing. If one hasn’t won some battles, if he 
has not landed some heavy blows he has no punch, he really does 
not know the meaning of it. 

If you have this great quality, here are some of the battles it 
will help you win : 

You will stay in school if your parents are able to send you. 
Your punch will disable the “tired-of-school” feeling. It will 
keep you in school in spite of your feelings. 

If you have to quit school and go to work it will make you go 
to night school until you have completed your education. 

At school you will not he content with mediocre grades. In 
business you will be known as “a live wire.” 

You will stick to your job when you get a good one. Your 
punch will make you learn everything you can there, and it will 
discourage every inclination to quit and “get a better job.” 

You will get along with grouchy bosses and grouchy clerks 
because you will want to please them, and in the end you will 
win out. 

You won’t be easily discouraged, you won’t go around looking 
gloomy, you won’t be easily bothered, because you will rise above 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


24 

gloominess and discouragement, and you will be so busy fighting 
you will not have time to be worried about mistakes or failures. 

In the fighting world a knock-out is considered a great accom¬ 
plishment. In the fight that you are waging, in your battle for 
success, how many knock-outs have you scored ? How many oppo¬ 
nents, obstacles, has your punch disabled ? Look at the following. 
Have you floored them ? They are strong and persistent opponents. 


Has 

your punch done the work ? 



1. 

Smoking 

12. 

Lack of self-control 

2. 

Wasting time 

13 - 

Dishonesty 

3 - 

Acting smart 

14. 

Fear of hard work . 

4 - 

Acting the bully 

IS- 

Untrustworthiness 

5 - 

Tendency to loaf 

16. 

Unclean thoughts 

6. 

Lack of stickability 

37 * 

Inability to heed advice 

7 - 

Discourtesy 

18. 

Failure to use opportunities 

8. 

Greediness 

19. 

Lack of push 

9 - 

Discouragement 

20. 

Lack of desire to learn 

10. 

Bad temper 

21. 

Self-satisfaction 

11. 

Lack of self-dependence 

22. 

Laziness 


Girls need to cultivate punch even more than boys. It is lack 
of it that keeps many girls from becoming real business women. 
Are you guilty of any of the following indiscretions? 


1. Fooling with the boys 

2. Slyness 

3. Being late at the office 

4. Overdressing 


5. Powdering too often 

6. Too much paint 

7. Neglecting work when boss is 

away 


CHAPTER III 


Letter-Writing in Business 

Few persons in school realize the immense importance of business 
letter-writing, nor the rapidity with which its importance is growing 
as more and more the business world learns how to Use Words 
so as to Make People Do Things. 

Since a letter is a substitute for a personal messenger, it must 
fairly represent that messenger in these respects: 

1. It must look as the messenger would be expected to look— 
that is, it should have the good clothes and brisk manner that a 
well-dressed, alert person should have. A slouchy letter, or a 
letter old-fashioned in style, makes just had an impression as 
slouchy, untidy dress. 

2. The person who receives a letter spends far less time in 
reading it than in talking to a person who calls to see him. A 
letter must, therefore, do its work very quickly, it must be as brief 
as possible; and yet it must say all that needs to be said, for a 
letter that does not say all that needs to be said is as poor a thing 
as the one who carries a message and forgets what it is when he 
tries to deliver it. 

3. As in the case of all business, the business stated in letters 
must be accurately stated, and completely stated, or it fails to do 
its work. In order to state business details in the right way in 
letters a certain use of imagination is necessary. One must see 
the person to whom one is writing as if sitting in a chair beside 
one’s desk, so that in the letter one talks to him as one would face 
to face. One must see all the business details also, and know just 
what words will call up in the reader’s mind the correct picture of 
these details. Words are only symbols to call up images that 

25 


2 6 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


already exist in the other person’s mind—electric buttons, as it 
were, that one pushes and so flashes a series of pictures that take 
the place of showing the person the thing itself if he were to call. 
This is why letter-writing is so difficult. 

Letter writing is important because a two-cent stamp will carry 
a message through the mails which would cost many dollars in 
train fare if a personal messenger were to take it, to say nothing 
of the time of the messenger, which is worth a great deal more 
money. Of course one cannot expect to make a cheap letter do 
the same work that a costly messenger would do; but in making 
sales, for example, fifty or a hundred letters may do as much 
business as one salesman making a personal call, and even so there 
would be a great saving in expense. It is, therefore, exceedingly 
important to learn how to make letters do as much business as 
possible. The writer knows of one boy who started at fourteen 
to practice the fine art of letter-writing, and he was so successful 
that at nineteen he earned $8,000 in commissions on the sales 
which his letters made* and now he is said to draw a salary of 
$25,000 a year as sales and advertising manager of the Royal 
Tailors. If any one ever rose to great success by letter-writing 
alone, it was Philip Lennan. 

Letter-writing may be said to begin with the envelope, as that 
is the simplest thing about a letter, and addressing envelopes is 
the first thing entrusted to the junior clerk as a part of getting 
out letters. 

Envelopes should be addressed for the convenience of the post¬ 
man, so that he can handle letters with maximum speed, and so 
give the best possible service to the entire business world. 

The first man to handle a letter looks only at the state: that 
should be clearly written on a line by itself, well separated from 
the next line above. 

The next man to handle a letter looks only at the town or city: 
that should .be clearly written on a line by itself, well separated 
from the line above and the line below. 

Finally, the street address is read, and after that the name. 
Crowding always makes reading hard. 


LETTER-WRITING IN BUSINESS 


27 


(Name and address 
of writer here or 
on the flap, always 
necessary.) 


(Leave this 
space clear 
for post¬ 
mark.) 


(Put stamp 
square in 
this corner, 
right side 
up.) 


Mr. John M. Patterson 

1826 Euclid Ave. 

Cleveland 

Ohio 


Illustration of a Pen-Written Envelope 


Commas at the end of the lines on an envelope are not needed; 
but if used should be uniform and consistent. Periods to indicate 
abbreviations should be retained always. Short states like Ohio, 
Utah, Idaho, and Iowa should not be abbreviated. The official 
post office abbreviation for California is now “Calif,” since “Cal.” 
is too easily confused with “Col.” for Colorado. 

The Proper Form for a Business Letter 

Just as a business man in America has his face shaven smooth, 
his hair cut short, and his fingernails trimmed into new moons, 
and would not do very much business if he made an oddity of 
himself by imitating the Chinese and wearing a queue, with 
fingernails two inches long, so he has adopted a certain conven¬ 
tional form for business letters and expects to see all up-to-date 
letters arranged in this way. These are the main points: 

1. The correct address at which an answer will reach the writer 
through the post office should appear at the top, on the right hand 
half of the page, preceding the date of the letter. This is called 



28 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


the date line. In a small town, only the town may be necessary 
for delivery of the reply. In a city the street number is usually 
required. In some New York City buildings even the room number 
must be given. 

2. The name and address of the person written to should come 
next, on the left hand half of the page, starting flush with the 
margin—not indented so much as a sixteenth of an inch. 

3. A conventional salutation such as “Dear Sir,” “Dear Madam,” 
or “Dear Mr. (name filled in)” is the third item, and should be 
on a line by itself, starting flush with the margin, and followed 
by a colon (now considered better than a colon and dash, while 
the comma found in social letters is not recognized in business). 
“Gentlemen” is the universal form after a firm or company name, 
as “Dear Sirs” is considered out of date. 

4. The body of the letter should start as a paragraph, and the 
first line of each paragraph should be indented half an inch to an 
inch and a half. 

5. There should be a conventional close such as “Yours truly” 
or “Very truly yours.” Such useless phrases as “Trusting this 
may meet your approval,” etc., are considered out of date and 
should be dropped. 

In addition, there should be a liberal white margin all around 
the letter, wider on the left-hand side than on the right. A business 
man hates to see any crowding on a letter page, especially lines that 
crowd against the right-hand side of the page. 

Observe that the box form of arranging the name and address, 
that is, placing the address at the opening flush with the margin 
as the name is, does not apply to pen-written letters, though it 
may be used in the case of typewritten letters. 


Good margin here 


LETTER-WRITING IN BUSINESS 


29 


Full return address 
Date line 


Name, (flush) 

Address, (indented) 

Salutation: (flush) 

Body of letter starts as paragraph. 


(Complimentary close) 
Yours truly, 

Signature 


Proper Arrangement eor a Business Letter 


No crowding here 


30 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


Exercises on Envelope-Addressing 

It seems very difficult for young people to judge the length of 
lines and space between lines so as to avoid crowding on an en¬ 
velope. 

In the exercises on carrying messages and on telephoning there 
are several addresses. More may be taken from local telephone 
directories. 

These should be copied on slips of paper about the size of 
envelopes (not smaller than 3 by 5 inches), which may be ob¬ 
tained at small expense from printers, who can cut the slips from 
“waste” (narrow strips of paper cut off the sides of larger sheets). 

Twenty addresses should be correctly copied in ten minutes, and 
practice should be continued until twenty successive addresses 
have been written accurately with proper space between lines and 
without crowding at the ends of the lines. 


TALK No. 3 by the Morale Officer on 
What Constitutes the Exceptional Employee 

It takes strength and earnestness in large quantities for a young 
worker to be able to do what he should do when he is at work. 
A knowledge of the theory of how to get along, of how to make 
good, is certainly worth something. But no amount of knowledge 
of theory will displace native strength and will. The young per¬ 
son who has never worked knows little of the actual problems that 
he will confront when he gets a job. Things that seem easy be¬ 
forehand grow hard when they have to be executed quickly. Now, 
unless you can have clearly in mind the advice and correct rules 
of procedure, and have faith enough in this advice and strength 
enough to follow it in the face of all difficulties, you will go the 
way of the many thousands who fail because they give in when 
the first few hard knocks are received. Unless you possess those 
peculiar qualities of perseverance, the ability to form good judg- 


THE EXCEPTIONAL EMPLOYEE 


3i 

merits and see things as they are and not as you would like to see 
them, unless you can look to the future and endure the hardships 
of the present, you will go the road that so many boys and girls 
go, you will never accomplish what you might. 

How often have I seen young people go forth to work with fine 
ideas, with a strong courage, with everything favorable for good 
careers, who, when they have worked a little while, lose their 
vision, forget their resolutions, and utterly fail to stand the test. 
This starting-point is the critical time in a young worker’s life. 
Here is the parting of the roads. Here comes the real test. Here 
the ruts begin, here the blind alleys. Here the great army of 
beginners is divided into two groups—the leaders and the follow¬ 
ers, those who think for themselves and those who let others do 
their thinking for them, those who think only of the present with 
its little doings and pleasures and those who think of the morrow. 

Here one begins to act for himself, to act his own thoughts. 
Heretofore he has not been an independent individual; others have 
had more to do with his life than he has. But now all is changed. 
He is cast adrift. He must direct his own course. His whole 
future lies in his own hands. Every little thought, every little act 
is of his own choosing. And he must realize this, as only a full 
realization will save him. He must understand that every thought 
and every act go to make up his personality, his character—that 
they become a part of him just as the food he eats is assimilated 
and becomes a part of his physical make-up. 

In the early days of one’s business career the right kind of ad¬ 
vice is, therefore, very helpful. Advice, if heeded, will save time, 
will save effort which otherwise might be exerted in the wrong 
direction, and it will save pain and trouble. But strange to say, 
many young people do not know how to take and heed advice. It 
seems to be a part of their make-up to be heedless and headstrong. 

But even if one believes in and tries to follow the advice of 
others, he finds it very difficult when he is confronted with the 
hard, cold experiences of the business world. “I know that I am 
going to stick to this job,” said a young fellow to me, who had a 
reputation for staying with his jobs a very short time. “I know 


32 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


that I must stick if I ever amount to anything/’ But he did not 
stick; he could not get it into his head that every job had its dis¬ 
agreeable features, that no work was easy unless he made it so by 
falling in love with his job. And so he was continually changing 
from one job to another. Very often boys and girls, before going 
to work, determine on the things they will observe when they get 
positions, among which are—“I will not let the little knocks and 
troubles, which I am sure to have, keep me from liking my job”; 
“I will not be too quick to worry about advancement, but I will 
do my work each day well and let the advancement take care of 
itself”; “I will master my job and not let it master me.” But 
when they are located, what happens? Why, the one who says 
that he will not let his troubles keep him from liking his job soon 
acquires a strong distaste for it, because he has to work overtime 
once in a while. And the one w*ho says he will not begin to worry 
about advancement but will do his work well each day, begins to 
complain that there is no chance there, when, as a matter of fact, 
instead of studying his work at night he goes to the movies. 

There are certain snags that nearly every one stumbles over. 
He may be warned beforehand. He may think that he knows how 
to step over them, but his eyesight either grows bad or else he lacks 
strength to lift his feet high enough. It is the exceptional man 
or woman that gets by without a scratch. It is this kind that has 
strength, fortitude, good judgment, willingness to take advice and 
strength to heed it. This is the kind of young man and the kind 
of young woman that the business world is looking for. 


CHAPTER IV 
Educational Fundamentals 

The commonest tools of business are—the voice (speech) and 
the pen (writing figures, etc.). Every one must talk to fellow 
employees and to customers, and we have already considered the 
importance of speaking in a clear, pleasant, distinct voice. It is 
equally important to pronounce words correctly and use them 
grammatically. This means knowledge of correct English for 
speaking. The use of the pen as a tool in business means good 
penmanship, correct spelling (which has importance only in writ¬ 
ing), and knowledge of punctuation (which is important in writ¬ 
ing). Correct grammatical usage is important in writing as well 
as in speaking. 

Most young people think they use these tools well enough, and 
at any rate in school they have wasted all the time in studying the 
use of them which they can afford to give. It is only when they 
pass a certain age and begin to get the comments of impartial 
friends, or more often perhaps hear the disagreeable criticisms of 
employers or rivals, that they realize how exceedingly important 
it is in business to be actual and complete masters of these two 
simple tools or instruments. High-class business houses wish to 
have employees who can speak to customers in a correct and polite 
manner. They know that bad penmanship is hard to read, and 
looks sloppy, while a misspelled word will stand out on a page like 
a wart. These are little things, but they are continually irritating, 
and they do more to hold back the ambitious than far larger and 
more serious elements of education or lack of education. Every 
one who has had experience in business knows this beyond any 
question. It is only beginners who fail to realize the very great 
importance of these educational fundamentals. 

33 


34 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


These little defects of education are more easily corrected than 
most persons imagine. Some persons are naturally poor in spell¬ 
ing, or penmanship, or correct use of English. They think they 
are born that way and must make the best of their defects. But 
it is only great ability that rises above such minor defects without 
correcting them, and as a matter of fact even the worst spellers 
and penmen can make a fair showing in business if they go about 
it in the right way. In this chapter I wish to tell you what the 
right way is, to show you how easily the defects may be corrected. 

Penmanship is useful chiefly in writing figures and keeping ac¬ 
counts. Only personal letters are now written by the pen, and 
even many personal letters are written on the typewriter. But 
bookkeeping records for the most part are still kept in pen writing, 
and probably will be for many years to come. Small entries and 
corrections can be written much more rapidly by the pen than by 
any machine. 

Any one can learn to write a fairly good hand in a comparatively 
short time. The natural way to write is by using the fingers— 
what is called the finger-movement of the pen. As the finger 
muscles tire quickly, the writing gets bad as soon as it begins to 
be quick. A person may write as slowly as he pleases, and so learn 
to draw the letters beautifully, but the moment he begins to in¬ 
crease speed so as to get the work done the finger muscles tire and 
the handwriting goes to pieces—it gets bad, and can’t help getting 
bad. So professional penmen have learned to write by the full- 
arm or muscular movement, letting the arm rest on the thick 
muscle of the forearm and moving the pen by the arm muscles, 
with scarcely any movement of the fingers at all. This full-arm 
movement in penmanship can be kept up all day long without 
tiring, and rapidity of work does not produce bad writing. 

You can learn the full-arm movement in penmanship by going 
to a regular penmanship teacher in any good business college or 
correspondence school and making a business of practicing for 
twenty-five to one hundred hours. It is purely a matter of keeping 
up the practice for the required number of hours. 

Correct English and punctuation may also be learned in the 


EDUCATIONAL FUNDAMENTALS 


35 

same way. There are only a dozen rules of punctuation which 
are really important in business, and if you will concentrate on 
these with the right sort of practice exercises, you will soon know 
when to insert commas and when to leave them out. There are 
only some twenty-five principles of grammar which give rise to 
very many mistakes common in business. Master these few prin¬ 
ciples by a great deal of practice that will break up your old bad 
habits and establish new ones, and you will soon make a change in 
your speech that will astonish your friends and associates. 

The chief trouble is that you are unconscious of the errors you 
make. If you can become conscious of your mistakes, you will 
soon correct them. Here is a test which you can give yourself in 
a few minutes which will show you just how you compare with 
others. The test has been given to thousands of grammar school 
graduates, high school graduates, and business employees, and it 
afifords you a scientific measure of your ability. Just write it out 
according to directions, and then carefully compare your work with 
the key on the following page. 

Experts have demonstrated that there are only about 4,000 
words which are commonly used in business, and of these only 
about 1,500 offer any difficulty in spelling. You probably mis¬ 
spell no more than 200 or 300 at most. If you can discover these 
few words, you can soon master them by going over them again 
and again and again till you know every one so you never will 
forget it. The task of becoming a good speller for business pur¬ 
poses is far from hopeless even for the naturally poorest speller. 
Make up your mind to be a good speller. Following are some 
suggestions which will help you: 

1. Get a good spelling book and check every word you are in 
doubt about.* 

2. Make note of words used in conversation which you do not 
know how to spell and at the first opportunity look them up in the 
dictionary. 

♦If some one will dictate to you the words in Cody’s “100% Speller,” 
you can check just those that you miss and waste no time on any which 
you do not really need to study. 



36 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


3. In your reading, write down all difficult words. Later go 
over them to make sure that you know how to spell them. 

4. One aid to spelling is to know the meaning of words. Never 
pass over a word that you cannot define. Jot it down and at your 
convenience look up the definition. 

100 Word Spelling Test—Standard 95% 

Note. —These are the words most often used in general business corre¬ 
spondence. Write them with correct spelling, and do not leave them till you 
can spell every word correctly. If in doubt, look up in the dictionary. 


oblidge 

favour 

especially 

truely 

investigate 

promice 

sincerely 

catalogue 

asistance 

recieve 

phamplet 

volume 

respectfully 

particular 

examination 

interest 

receipt 

practical 

arrange 

representative 

relitive 

kindley 

entitle 

disappoint 

madame 

material 

issue 

possible 

application 

dificulty 

addres 

surprise 

consideration 

premium 

develope 

distinguish 

oclock 

impossible 

circular 

atention 

reference 

organise 

absense 

February 

certian 

apoint 

stationery (paper) 

department 

information 

elaborate 

contain 

stampp 

scene 

expence 

atend 

foreign 

salry 

becaus 

entitel 

probably 

wheather 

system 

commitee 

separate 

secretery 

finaly 

experence 

service 

president 

cordialy 

possition 

statment 

appreciate 

appear 

judgement 


EDUCATIONAL FUNDAMENTALS 


37 


decision 

factry 

reccomend 

devide 

importanse 

January 

circumstance 

diferent 

prelimenary 

begining 

further 

citizen 

investigate 

sevral 

parallel 

theatre 

signature 

responsible 

improvment 

conveniance 

alright 

distribute 

illustrate 

ammount 

disapear 


Accuracy in Figuring 

The records of business are kept in figures, and if the figures 
are not correct, the business is in a dangerous situation. Many 
businesses have been absolutely wrecked by inaccurate figuring. 

In big business corporations it has been found that human 
beings, even the best-trained, will make on an average about one 
mistake in a hundred operations of figuring (counting as an oper¬ 
ation every time a figure is dealt with in any way, including writ¬ 
ing it down). Ordinary grammar school graduates will make 3 
to 5 errors in a hundred operations where the standard of business 
is only 1, and that is altogether too many. In big business houses, 
figuring is done twice over to correct the one error in a hundred 
operations. When as many as 3 to 5 errors are made, it has to be 
done three or four times over to get dependable accuracy, and that 
means an enormous expense,—the person who makes as many 
mistakes as that is worth nothing at all, since it costs more to cor¬ 
rect his errors than his work amounts to. 

Yet a few weeks of concentrated practice on the simple oper¬ 
ations of adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing (especially 
adding and multiplying) will not only bring up the standard of 
accuracy in most cases, but will increase the speed from 25 oper¬ 
ations a minute (the average of grammar school graduates) to 40 
(the average of high school graduates) or 60 to 100 (the records 
made by expert accountants). 


38 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


National Ability Test on English 

(No. 3 copyright, 1921, by Sherwin Cody) 

Copy the following paragraph, capitalizing each letter that ought 
to be capitalized, and then insert necessary commas (no other 
punctuation marks required), writing with ink: 

Please read the enclosed report of the illinois state insurance 
commission just published with the letter signed by its secretary 
and president showing the rapid growth of term life insurance. 
We also quote from a report signed personally by the secretary 
of commerce which was sent out on january 10 1919 through the 
bureau of foreign and domestic commerce federal department of 
commerce showing a similar trend in english french and italian 
insurance. In our country it may be noted the west has responded 
more widely than the east. 

In the blank space opposite the following sentences write the 
single word that is in italics, spelling it correctly. Use a separate 
sheet, and number the words. 

1. An insurance polisy. . 

2. They gave the book as a premium . 

3. Give me a rcseet for the money. . 

4. He referd to you in the letter. . 

5. Do not condcm me as a thief. . 

6. Advertize in the newspaper. . 

7. The pictures are a good feetyur. . 

8. Let us diskus the point. . 

9. Do you like New York espeshuly? . 

10. Cordyluy yours. . 

11. Ten volyumz in the set of books. . 

12. In refer’ns to your request. . 

13. Can you secure the apointment? . 

14. The Asosheashun of Commerce. . 

15. The Sekretery of Labor. . 

16. I will rekomend you. ' .. 


















EDUCATIONAL FUNDAMENTALS 39 

17. Visit for’n countries. . 

18. “Jan.” is an abreviashun. . 

19. The two jobs are similer. . 

20. There was only parshul loss. . 

21. The Tenth Army Core. . 

22. The Buro of Education. . 

23. Ireperuble means “not repairable.” . 

24. A convertnble bed-lounge. . 

25. The alinement of your typewriter. . 

I. Copy the following and divide into sentences by inserting 
periods and capitalizing each word that should be capitalized: 

I like him he lives on our street his father sometimes works for 
us his name is Henry. 

Write the numbers, and the correct word or words of the two 
or more given in parentheses in the following. If both are right, 
copy both without omission. If neither is correct, write the 
correct form. 

2. It (don’t—doesn’t) do me any good. 

3. Do you like to eat (them—those) sour apples? 

4. (It’s—its) a fine one! 

5. Do you like (its—it’s) flavor? 

6. He has (begun—began) to do his work well. 

7. The river has (overflown—overflowed) its banks. 

8. Mary has (drunk—drank) up all the milk. 

9. (Have you eaten—did you eat) since yesterday? 

10. He (has been—was) here already. 

II. (Have you heard—did you hear) from him yet? 

12. He (hasn’t spoken—didn’t speak) to me about it so far. 

13. I (saw—have seen) him after I saw you. 

14. I (saw—have seen) him since I saw you. 

15. Is there anything secret between you and (him—he) ? 

16. Whom will it be read by? By (me—myself). 

17. Who is it that will come? It is (they—them). 












40 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


Test on Addition and Copying Speed 


Copy one problem on a sheet of 

paper; 

then add it. Find the 

sum of as 

many columns as possible in 4 

minutes. You 

are not 

expected to finish all. Accuracy is 

more important than speed. 

927 

297 

136 486 

384 

176 277 

837 

379 

925 

340 765 

477 

783 445 

882 

756 

473 

988 524 

881 

697 682 

595 

837 

983 

386 140 

266 

200 594 

603 

924 

3i5 

353 812 

679 

366 481 

118 

no 

661 

904 466 

241 

851 778 

781 

854 

794 

547 355 

796 

535 849 

756 

965 

177 

192 834 

850 

323 157 

222 

344 

124 

439 567 

733 

229 953 

525 



Key to ioo-Word 

Spelling Test 


oblige 


because 


reference 


truly 


whether 


February 


sincerely 


separate 


stationery (paper) 

receive 


experience 


elaborate 


respectfully 

cordially 


scene 


interest 


appreciate 


foreign 


arrange 


favor 


entitle 


kindly 


investigate 


system 


madam 


catalog or catalogue 

secretary 


possible 


pamphlet 


service 


address 


particular 


position 


premium 


receipt 


appear 


o’clock 


representative 

especially 


attention 


entitle 


promise 


absence 


material 


assistance 


appoint 


application 


volume 


information 

surprise 


examination 


stamp 


develop 


practical 


attend 


impossible 


relative 









EDUCATIONAL FUNDAMENTALS 


4i 


disappoint 

finally 

different 

issue 

president 

further 

difficulty 

statement 

several 

consideration 

judgment 

signature 

distinguish 

decision 

convenience 

circular 

divide 

illustrate 

organize 

circumstance 

recommend 

certain 

beginning 

January 

department 

investigate 

preliminary 

contain 

theater 

citizen 

expense 

improvement 

parallel 

salary 

distribute 

responsible 

probably 

factory 

all right 

committee 

importance 

amount 

disappear 


Key to Test on English 

Key to Punctuation: Please read the enclosed report of the 
Illinois State Insurance Commission (comma optional) just pub¬ 
lished, with the letter signed by its secretary and president, showing 
the rapid growth of term life insurance. We also quote from a 
report signed personally by the Secretary of Commerce, which 
was sent out on January 10, 1919, through the Bureau of Foreign 
and Domestic Commerce, Federal Department of Commerce, 
showing a similar trend in English, French (comma optional) 
and Italian insurance. In our own country, it may be noted, the 
West has responded even more widely than the East. 

Not over 7 errors allowed to the poorest in business. 

Key to Spelling: 1, Policy; 2, premium; 3, receipt; 4, 
referred; 5, condemn; 6, advertise; 7, feature; 8, discuss; 9, 
especially; 10, cordially; 11, volumes; 12, reference; 13, appoint¬ 
ment; 14, association; 15, secretary; 16, recommend; 17, foreign; 
18, abbreviation; 19, similar; 20, partial; 21, corps; 22, bureau; 
23, irreparable; 24, convertible; 25, alignment. 

Not over 5 errors allowed to the poorest in business. 


42 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


Key to Grammar : i, Period after—him, street, us ; 2, doesn’t; 
3, those; 4, it’s (apostrophe) ; 5, its (no apostrophe) ; 6, begun; 
7, overflowed; 8, drunk; 9, have you eaten; 10, has been; 11, have 
you heard; 12, hasn’t spoken; 13, saw; 14, have seen; 15, him; 
16, me; 17, they. 

Not over 6 errors allowed to the poorest in business. 

Key to Copying and Adding: There is no test unless the 
columns have been copied as well as added. Totals should be as 
follows: 

6096 4749 4285 4949 5307 4160 5216 5319 

High school graduates will average to complete four columns 
with 1.5 errors, and this should be regarded as the minimum ac¬ 
ceptable in business. 

Note.— Sherwin Cody’s “100% Self-Correcting Course in English” and 
his “Business Ability Development Course” will enable ambitious home 
students to correct the educational defects shown by these tests. 


TALK No. 4 by the Morale Officer on 
Stickability 

One of the hardest things for many young people to do is to 
stay with a job when they do not like it. When they make up 
their minds that they are going to quit, it is well nigh impossible 
to convince them that they are making a mistake. There are 
thousands of boys and girls quitting positions every day for no 
good reason at all. In a few days they get another job, try that 
for a while, and soon find that the new place is no better than the 
first. Most failures are due to lack of “stickability,” inability to 
concentrate energy upon one job, and unwillingness to put mind, 
heart, and soul into one undertaking. Seldom does an office 
worker get a high salary until he has been in one house for at 
least three years. 

It is difficult for one starting out in the world, with thoughts 
untrained, and with will hard to control, to put his whole energy 
into one single endeavor for any length of time. But he must be 
able to do this if he would succeed. He must be able to forget 


STICKABILITY 


43 

about everything else but the job ahead of him. He must be 
willing to try his best to make his job a “go.” He must feel that 
there is a good future in the business for him if he will but 
measure up to his opportunities. 

To have stickability requires patience. Young workers want to 
see results, but they often make the mistake of expecting advance¬ 
ment too soon. Or else, they have a false notion of what real 
results are. 

To be able to stick to one job, a young employee must keep 
busy. “An idle brain is the Devil’s workshop.” When the mind 
has nothing constructive to think of, it will immediately become 
destructive. When you are not thinking about how well you can 
do a certain task, when you are not planning your work and 
thinking of new schemes and ways of doing things, you are think¬ 
ing of other workers with easier jobs, other jobs with more ad¬ 
vancement and less work. 

1. Do not allow yourself to be idle during working hours. 

2. Do not go to another job simply because it offers a larger 
salary. The opportunity is the thing that counts. 

3. There will be a tendency to think that the other positions 
offer better chances of advancement. Be very sure that such is 
the case before deciding to try a new place. 

4. The time spent in one place is valuable if you stay, but is 
often virtually lost if you quit. Many people lose three or four 
years of their lives because they will not stick to one job long 
enough. 

5. Never leave a place without giving the firm ample notice. 
Give your employer a square deal regardless of whether you think 
you have been treated right. Sometimes employees are too timid 
or are afraid to tell their boss that they are leaving. If the boss 
is the right kind, he will be glad to learn that you are getting a 
better place. But you must give ample notice even at the risk of 
losing the other position. If the new firm is not willing to wait 
for you, it is not the kind of firm you want to work with. 


CHAPTER V 


Telephoning 

In the business world, few devices are employed so extensively 
as the telephone, and for this reason the young man or young 
woman seeking employment and desiring to win advancement in 
his or her chosen profession should early learn to telephone cor¬ 
rectly. No better advice can be given to the business beginner than 
to tell him to study the telephone carefully in order to learn how to 
make the best use of the service it gives. Girls are particularly 
successful in telephoning, because their voices when trained carry 
well over^ the wires. 

Quick action is a business necessity, and the telephone is the 
best medium there is for securing it. The telephone affords imme¬ 
diate question and answer, a complete conversation, regardless of 
the distance between the speakers. There are no limits to tele¬ 
phone talking in the United States, for millions of miles of tele¬ 
phone wire now reach every part of this country, ready to carry 
the message of Americans who realize and make the most of the 
possibilities of the telephone. 

The average business man to-day requires his employees to 
know how to use the telephone correctly and courteously. He ex¬ 
pects the worker to be able to carry on a telephone conversation 
just as well as though the person he is talking with were on the 
opposite side of that employee’s desk. Many employers give spe¬ 
cial training to workers who have particularly good telephone 
voices, and are particularly tactful and courteous. They realize 
that since a large number of transactions are done by telephone, it 
is necessary for employees to be able to negotiate satisfactorily 
' with people who call by telephone, not only to prevent the loss 
of customers, hut also to win new ones. 

44 


TELEPHONING 


45 


History of the Telephone 

The telephone was invented by Alexander Graham Bell, who 
was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, and who came to this country 
when in his teens. Bell’s invention was the first device that would 
transmit every tone of the speaking voice to the listening ear over 
distances greater than the unaided voice can carry. The telephone 
was born in an attic room in a building in Boston, Mass., on June 
2, 1875. Originally it w r as composed of an animal membrane 
drawn tightly over a wooden frame like the head of a drum, and 
in touch with a magnet. Bell set up one of these instruments in 
his attic workshop and another in an adjoining room, and con¬ 
nected them with about sixty feet of wire. 

On the history-making day in June, 1875, Bell spoke the fol¬ 
lowing words into his instrument: “Mr. Watson, please come 
here; I want you,” and Watson, his assistant, who was listening 
at the other instrument, heard the words and obeyed the summons 
in a few seconds. 

The remarkable development of American telephony is indi¬ 
cated by the fact that in January, 1915, nearly forty years after 
Bell telephoned that first sentence, he repeated the words: “Mr. 
Watson, please come here; I want you," into a duplicate of his 
original instrument, which was attached by a section of the original 
wire, to the New York end of the new transcontinental line; and 
Mr. Watson, in San Francisco, 3,400 miles away, heard the words, 
and replied: “It would take me a week to reach you.” With one 
or two exceptions, all improvements to the telephone apparatus 
have been made by American engineers. 


The Telephone Company 

To get the best results from telephone service, it is essential to 
know something about the organization of the telephone company. 
It is divided into three main departments—Commercial, Plant, 
and Traffic. 


46 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


The Commercial Department is the one that transacts business 
with the public. It sells the service, takes care of collections, and 
handles any complaints that may be made. 

The Plant Department installs telephones and cares for the 
equipment such as wires, cables, switchboards, etc. 

The Traffic Department renders the service and is composed 
mainly of the operator in the exchanges. 

There are several other smaller departments which are parts of 
the three main ones. 

All the departments work together and cooperate to give the 
best possible telephone service. 

The Telephone Instrument and Lines 

There are two main kinds of Bell Telephone instruments. One 
is the desk stand, which rests on the desk and is the more familiar. 
Then there is the wall set, a box-shaped affair which is fastened 
to a wall and is usually found in residences. 

The working parts of the telephone instrument are the trans¬ 
mitter, the receiver, the receiver hook, and the'bell. 

The transmitter is the little round, hollow affair into which you 
talk; the receiver is the part which hangs on the hook, and through 
which you listen. 

There are two kinds of service. The first, which was formerly 
the only kind used, is the magneto exchange service. To get the 
operator it is necessary to turn a crank on the telephone instrument 
and thus signal the operator. 

The more modern service is the common battery, which is much 
more convenient. It is merely necessary to lift the receiver off the 
hook, which causes a light to flash in front of the operator and 
thus attract her attention. 

Common battery service is rapidly replacing the magneto. 

There are two kinds of lines: Individual lines and party lines. 
An individual line is for the exclusive use of the subscriber whose 
telephone is on it. A party line has on it two or more subscribers. 
Of course, an individual line is more expensive, as there is never 


TELEPHONING 


47 

any one else using it when you want to talk, and no one on the 
line can overhear your conversation. 

In the telephone directory, if the subscriber has an individual 
line, he has merely a number, such as Main 7183; if a party line, 
there is a letter after it, such as Main 7183-M or Main 7183-R. 

Many subscribers have several different telephone instruments 
in different offices, and if necessary several trunk lines. Large 
business concerns sometimes have so many lines that they have 
their own private branch exchange switchboard and operator. If 
a business concern or a house has a private branch exchange, there 
is a star (*) in front of the number in the telephone directory. 

Many concerns and residences have more than one telephone on 
the same line, to avoid needless steps from one part of an office 
or house to another to answer the telephone. Additional tele¬ 
phones on the same line are called “extension telephones.” 

When using an extension line, always make sure that no one 
else is trying to use the line. Listen a moment and if you hear no 
talking say “Hello,” as some one may be holding the wire. 

The Directory 

The telephone directory is used a great deal and should there¬ 
fore be taken care of properly. It should have a place and should 
be in that place when not in use. Most directories contain con¬ 
siderable information of value, such as a classified list of adver¬ 
tisers, rates for calls, directions for making calls, and sometimes 
lists of public telephone stations and points of interest. In addition, 
the book is constantly used for ascertaining addresses. Become 
thoroughly familiar with your directory. 

The Best Telephone Voice 

In talking into the telephone, remember this axiom: The lower 
the tones of your voice, the more clearly are they heard at the other 
end of the wire. If the person you are talking with says that he 
cannot hear you distinctly, do not raise your voice; lower it slightly 
and enunciate your words more carefully. 


4« 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


This matter of enunciation is important. If you saw a friend 
walking up the street a few hundred yards ahead of you, and 
wished to call him, you wouldn’t shout, “Ohjim!” You would cry, 
“O-h-h-h, J-i-m-m!” Apply that principle to your use of the tele¬ 
phone. Bring out each syllable as distinctly as possible. 

The space between your lips and the telephone mouthpiece has 
a good deal to do with the way your words sound to the person you 
are talking with. Telephone engineers have determined that the 
best results are obtained when the speaker talks directly into 
the telephone with his lips about half an inch from the mouthpiece. 
If the lips are a greater distance away, it is difficult to make con¬ 
sonants such as B, T, D, F, and Z sound clearly. On the other 
hand, if your lips are closer than half an inch to the mouthpiece, 
your words are apt to sound jumbled and the nasal sounds M and 
N, in particular, do not enter the transmitter to be carried over the 
wires as distinctly as should be the case. It is sometimes very 
difficult to get the party on the other end of the wire to understand. 
In such cases, do not yell or get impatient. Think of some means 
of getting him to understand you. For instance, if you are trying 
to get him to understand the letter “F” which he is likely to take 
for “S,” begin at “A” and repeat the alphabet, “A-B-C-D-E-F,” 
pausing on “F,” and he will thus know that “S” is not meant. 
Again, you may wish the party to understand the name “Hudson.” 
Suggest to him that the name is the same as the river on the west 
side of Manhattan, or begins with H for Henry. There are an 
infinite number of ways of getting yourself understood. When the 
other party cannot understand, use some such method and do not 
repeat the word over and over again. 

A good way to form the habit of enunciating words clearly is to 
memorize the rules given below, which telephone operators follow 
in repeating numbers: 

1. “Wun”—with a strong N. 

2. “Too”—with a strong T and long OO. 

3. “Th-r-ee”—with a slightly rolling R and E. 

4. “Foer”—one syllable, with a long O. 

5. “Five”—with a long I and strong V. 




TELEPHONING 


49 


6. “Six”—with a strong X. 

7. “Sev-en”—with two syllables. 

8. “Ate”—with a long A and strong T. 

9. “Nien”—one syllable, with a strong N at the end. 

o. “Oh”—with a long O. 

When the operator answers your call by saying, “Number, 
please?” and when she repeats a number you have given her, she 
uses a rising inflection on the word that ends the phrase she uses. 
There is an important lesson in this practice, particularly if you 
have a tendency to let your voice fall as you finish speaking. By 
using a rising inflection on the word that ends a sentence, you make 
sure that it will be heard, and the person at the other end of the 
wire does not need to ask you to repeat what you said. 

Rules for Using the Telephone 

The rules for using the telephone are now pretty well deter¬ 
mined. An example of how they have been developed is afforded 
by the changes in the method for answering a telephone call. The 
response first was “Ahoy! Ahoy!” then “Hello,” and now in busi¬ 
ness the practice is to answer by giving your name, or department, 
or your employer’s name, as “Mr. Jones’s office, Mr. Smith speak 
ing.” The rules for the correct use of the telephone in business 
are given below: 

On Outgoing Calls 

1. Do not trust too much to memory on telephone numbers. It 
you are in doubt, look up the number. If you cannot find a num¬ 
ber and you feel sure the party has a telephone, ask the operator 
to give you “information.” Information always answers by saying 
“Information.” Do not say, “I want you to tell me the phone 
number of John Jones, Publisher, 26 West 37th Street.” Just say, 
“John Jones, Publisher, 26 West 37th Street,” and she will, of 
course, understand that you want the phone number. When she 
finds the number she will not only tell you what it is but she will 
immediately ask the operator to get the party for you. So do not 


50 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


hang up when Information tells you the number, and do not get 
excited if you do not understand it, as the number will be called 
for you. If you want to know what the number is, ask the party 
when he answers. 

2. Don’t forget in looking for numbers to use the black-faced 
type headings. You will note that on the top of the left-hand page 
appears in large type the first name on that page, while at the top 
of the right-hand page is shown the last name on the page. This 
enables you to tell at a glance whether or not you have the book 
open at the right place. 

3. Call your number by giving the exchange name first and 
pausing slightly between the hundreds and tens in the number. 
For example, if calling “Barclay 1263,” say: “Barclay One-Two 
(pause) Six-Three,” putting a slight rising inflection upon the 
“three.” 

4. Speak clearly and distinctly, directly into the transmitter, 
with your lips about half an inch from the mouthpiece. 

5. Listen to the operator’s repetition of the number and acknowl¬ 
edge it, if correct. If not, repeat the number you want, more 
slowly. 

6. Stay at the telephone, ready to talk, until the person you are 
calling answers, and then give your entire attention to the telephone 
conversation. 

7. If you wish to recall the operator, move the receiver hook up 
and down slowly. Never “jiggle” the hook rapidly. 

8. When you have finished talking, say “Good-bye” and replace 
the receiver on its hook. 

9. Remember that courtesy over the telephone is always desir¬ 
able; it wins friends for you and your employer. 

On Incoming Calls 

1. Answer your telephone promptly and pleasantly, giving your 
name or that of your department or employer. Do not say, 
“Hello.” Instead, give the name of the company and the depart¬ 
ment, or your name. 


1 


TELEPHONING 


5i 

2. Be ready with pad and pencil so as not to keep your caller 
waiting. 

3. If you require help in handling the call properly, get it at 
once or politely transfer the call to the employee who can best take 
care of it. 

4. If you answer for another person, offer to take the message 
and then see that the other gets it at the first opportunity. 

5. Listen attentively, so that you will not have to annoy the 
caller by asking him to repeat. 

6. Remember, abruptness or indifference drives away business. 
Close and courteous attention helps to win it. 

7. Be as courteous and considerate when talking to a person by 
telephone as you would when talking face to face. 

Long Distance Messages 

Should you desire to make a long distance call, consult your 
telephone directory before signaling the operator, so that you can 
determine what sort of call will best suit your purpose and just 
what information to give the operator. Long distance messages 
usually are classified, and their terms, methods, and rates vary in 
different localities. Your telephone directory, however, will give 
you the exact information you need. 

This same advice applies to emergency calls, such, for instance, 
as messages for help in case of fire or accident. 

When you wish to make a long-distance call, say to the operator 
“Long Distance;” Then wait till you get the special long distance 
operator. Always be prepared to give your own telephone number 
when asked for it. 

Telephone Courtesy 

Nothing is more important in a telephone conversation than 
courtesy. The person at the other end of the line cannot see you, 
and, therefore, judges you by your voice. By good telephone 
manners you can make friends and bring business to your firm. 


52 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


If you are on the wrong line, excuse yourself, as you have inter¬ 
rupted some one who is not to blame for the mistake. 

When you finish talking, always say “Good-bye, or a similar 
phrase. Then the other party is sure you are through. Place the 
receiver gently on the hook. If you do so roughly, it is likely to 
cause an unpleasant bang in the other person’s ear. Remember 
that the operator is doing her best to serve you and many others, 
and do not grow impatient if there is a slight delay. 

Learn the motto of the telephone company and practice it, not 
only in using the telephone, but alzvays —“The Voice With the 
Smile Wins.” 


Care of the Telephone 

Your telephone, just as your desk, should be kept neat and in 
good condition. When you dust off the desk in the morning, also 
wipe off the telephone instrument, as it is frequently handled and 
the user appreciates cleanliness. 

Do not allow the instrument to be surrounded by papers and 
books. Give it plenty of room on the desk, where it can easily be 
reached. Keep the cord from being tangled or caught on anything, 
as this is apt to impair the service. Wet umbrellas near a cord are 
a common cause of trouble. 

Above all, avoid the use of any attachments, such as memo pads, 
calendars, sanitary mouthpieces, etc. They are very likely to 
injure the service. Authorities who know are agreed that there 
is no danger of catching disease from a mouthpiece, so sanitary 
mouthpieces are unnecessary. 

In short, remember that you can do your part in securing good 
telephone service by taking care of the instrument at your disposal. 
If it is out of order in any way, do not attempt to repair it your¬ 
self. The company employs trained men for this purpose, and 
will gladly send one upon request. It is simply necessary to notify 
the operator. 


TELEPHONING 


53 


Practice Exercises on Using the Telephone 

How long ago was the telephone invented ? Who was the 
inventor ? 

Have you a telephone in your home? Are you acquainted at a 
business office where there is a private exchange with extensions? 
Is there a public telephone where you can go to study the telephone 
by direct observation? 


Exercise i 

The following questions are supposed to be answered while you 
are actually looking at a telephone instrument. Write them down 
in your notebook with a blank line or two after each in which 
you can write your answers at the time you look at the actual 
instrument: 

1. Are you looking at a wall set or a desk set? What is the 
difference? 

2. Describe the transmitter. 

3. Describe the receiver. 

4. How close should your lips be to the plate at the back of the 
transmitter for the best effect? What happens if you stick your 
mouth too close into the transmitter? What happens if you hold 
your mouth several inches away? 

5. What happens when you lift the receiver from its hook and 
put it to your ear? (Different things happen according to the type 
of instrument. What actually happens in case of the instrument 
you are observing?) 

6. In what voice should you speak into the transmitter of the 
telephone? Illustrate this, imagining that you are actually speak¬ 
ing into a telephone, as if there were a real instrument there. 
(Continue this practice till the voice is right.) 

7. How is the voice carried over the wires ? (Interview a teacher 
of physics, if possible, or read a book on the subject.) 


54 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


Exercise 2 

A visit to the telephone exchange, by preference the telephone 
company’s “central”—but a visit to a private exchange in a busi¬ 
ness house would answer,—should be the basis of this exercise. 
Write down the questions in the notebook as before, and answer 
them from direct observation. 

1. Describe the voice in which the central operator speaks. 
Why is this so very important? Inquire how the voice is trained, 
and how long the training requires. 

2. When a call comes over the wire, how does the operator 
know it? What does she do before answering? What does she 
do after she hears what is wanted? 

3. When a person gets no answer and moves the receiver hook 
up and down, what happens at the switchboard? If the hook is 
jiggled fast, what happens? What gives the best signal to the 
operator? (Ask her.) 

4. What does the operator do when she receives several calls 
all at the same time? How does she shut out one voice while 
speaking to another person on another line ? Why should a person 
on a telephone line be patient with an operator who doesn’t answer 
very promptly ? 

5. How many different lines come in on one switchboard? 
How many lines go out? (Get the count on the board you look 
at.) How many different combinations will these lines make? 
(You can figure that by mathematics.) How many calls does your 
operator handle in a day? Can you find out how many mistakes 
are made on the average ? 

6. If you get a wrong number, whose fault may it be? Why 
your fault ? How do errors occur at the switchboards ? 

7. When the operator leaves the switchboard at night, what 
happens when calls come in for persons who may be staying after 
hours in an office? How does she usually leave the lines while 
she is absent ? 


TELEPHONING 


55 


Exercise 3 


This is an exercise on finding names in a telephone directory. 
(Note that the numbers given below have been changed since this 
was written.) 

Referring to any telephone directory, prepare a list of twenty 
names with their numbers. The following list for New York City 
will indicate the various kinds of names and telephone numbers. 
There should be at least one name to represent each description. 

When the list has been prepared, get some one to read each name 
and do you look up the number to see how quickly it can be found. 
As soon as it is found it should be written down. The numbers 
written down should be inspected or checked to see if they are 
correct. 

Adams F B, r, 14 E 83 Lenox 6453 

(What does the r mean?) 

*Adam Hugo S Co, Undergarments 352 4th av 

Mad. Sq. 8865 
(What does the * mean?) 


(Which of the preceding names comes first in the directory, 
and why?) 


Amer Express Co— 

*65 Broadway Bowl Grn 10000 

* Claim Dept, 515 E 17 Styvesnt 2100 


(If you want the general manager, at 
get him?) 


which office will you 


Amer Railway Express Co— 
*Tracing Dept, 10th av & 33 
* Claim Dept, 250 W 26 
*On Hand Dept, 228 E 44 


Chelsea 9000 
Faragut 8907 
Vandrblt 5280 


(Where would you inquire for a package you had been notified 
was being held for you to call? For a package you had shipped 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


56 

which had not reached the person to whom you sent it? For a 
package received in damaged condition for which the company 
ought to pay?) 

(Audubon) 

Dillon Frances, r, 520 W 158 Audbon 5537-J 

(How do you call the J and what does it mean?) 

*McKim Mead & White— (Murray Hill) 

Architects, 101 Park av Mury Hill 5280 

(Notice abbreviations for telephone exchanges when full name 
is too long. Is “Me” in a class apart from plain “M”?) 

*N Y Academy of Medicine, 17 W 43 Vandrblt 974 

N Y News Co, The, no W 32 Farragut 472 

Newark Sign Co, 1 W 34 Greeley 3360 

(How does “Newark” come in reference to alphabetical order 
as compared with “N Y News”?) 

20 West 10th St. *Styvesnt 5170 

(Under what head are apartment houses found which are known 
simply by the street number?) 

Mrs. Sheridan, first name not known, in Fordham exchange 
(You will find two— 

Sheridan Mrs. John J, r, 335 E 188 

Fordham 1712-M 

Sheridan Mrs. N, r, 2241 Webster av Fordham 669 

(If you also know the street on which she lives, you can tell 
which it is. Otherwise you will have to call both and find out by 
inquiry which is the Mrs. Sheridan you wish to find.) 

Public School 36 Manhattan 

(You may look under “school” and find nothing, nor anything 
under “Public School,” or you may turn to “New York, City of—” 
You may look for “Board of Education,” but find at last “Educa¬ 
tion, Board of,” and under that “Public Schools Boro of Man¬ 
hattan.”) 


TELEPHONING 


57 


Public Schools Boro of Manhattan 

No. 36, 710 E 9 Orchard 4867 

Smith Mrs. M or Miss M 

(You will find nine persons of the name of M. Smith, and Mrs. 
may be the wife of one of the men listed and Miss M. Smith may 
be the daughter of any of them except those specially listed as 
“Miss M. Smith,” of which there are two. The guide must usually 
be the name of the street or the kind of business, or the approx¬ 
imate location as indicated by the telephone exchange. What other 
names are very numerous in your directory?) 

Smith & Co, 153 W 28 Farragut 3659 

(Observe that names with & come at the end of the alphabetic 
order, after Smith, Z, and “Smith & Co.” will follow “Smith & 
Adolph,” but precede “Smith & Ernes Co.”) 

Smith’s Laundry, 202 W 102 Riverside 5713 

(Observe that “Smith’s” comes after “Smith &,” as it is in effect 
a new word farther along in the alphabet.) 

If classified directories are available, persons or firms may be 
found by the line of business in which they are engaged, or the 
nearest plumber or grocery store may be located, or the nearest 
telegraph office or express office. The New York directory con¬ 
veniently classifies the apartment houses by zones, so if the street 
number is known the apartment house telephone number may be 
found. 

The art of finding names in a directory is an important one to 

learn. 


Exercise 4 

We suppose that you have written down in your notebook the 
list of telephone numbers given for the preceding exercise. 
Imagine you have a telephone before you, and go through the 
motions of calling the number and making the inquiry in proper 
form. 


58 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


Conversation No. i 

Directions: Call the home of F. B. Adams and inquire if Mrs. 
Adams wants a young man (or woman) to teach her children to 
swim, lessons to be given Saturday afternoons. The following 
might serve as a model: 

Lifting the receiver from the hook, place it at the ear and wait 
for central to respond. Then say— 

Lenox six four five three (pause). 

Is Mrs. Adams at home? (Pause while Mrs. Adams is called.) 

Is this Mrs. Adams? This is Henry Ware (give your own 
name) speaking. I have heard you might wish to employ a young 
man (or woman) to teach your children to swim, the lessons to be 
given Saturday afternoons. If that is true, I should like to call to 
see you this evening about five, if convenient to you. 

(Try this simple conversation, being careful to get the voice 
right, to speak with quiet reserve, neither too quickly nor too 
slowly, but very distinctly, and using the proper forms.) 

Conversation No. 2 

Four persons may be supposed to carry on this conversation, 
each using an imaginary telephone instrument. One will be the 
student himself (using his own name), one will be the operator at 
the private switchboard of the American Express Company, one 
will be the office boy who answers the telephone for the employ¬ 
ment manager, and the fourth will be the employment manager of 
that company. 

You: Bowling Green ten thousand. 

Operator : American Express Company. 

You: The employment manager, please. 

Office-boy: American Express Company, employment man¬ 
ager’s office. 

You: May I speak to Mr. Thurston? 

Office-boy : Hold the wire a moment. 


TELEPHONING 


59 


Mr. Thurston: Mr. Thurston speaking. 

You: This is Henry Ware (give your own name). Mr. Bart¬ 
lett, the principal of our evening school (give real name of your 
principal), has told me you could use an extra delivery messenger 
during the Christmas holidays. 

Mr. Thurston: How old are you? 

You: Twenty (give real age). 

Mr. Thurston: Are you acquainted with the city? 

You: Yes, I have done errands for so and so (give real names) 
during such and such time (give actual time). 

Mr. Thurston : What is your name? 

You: Give your name slowly and carefully, spelling it out. 

Mr. Thurston: And your address? 

You: Give your home address slowly and very distinctly, 
repeating it to make it quite clear. 

Mr. Thurston: Call to see me Saturday morning at nine. 

You: I will be there at nine on Saturday morning. (Be sure 
not to hang up the receiver without answering Mr. Thurston’s last 
remark, as he will not know whether you heard him unless you 
repeat his direction.) 


Conversation No. 3 

In behalf of your study group you wish to call up Mr. Wads¬ 
worth, office manager of A. W. Shaw Co., which has removed 
from 394 Fourth Ave. to 299 Madison Ave. so that you cannot 
get the new telephone number from the directory. Your object 
is to get permission for your group (mention number of group 
and name of leader) to use the Shaw telephone exchange for half 
an hour Friday evening after five, for practice purposes. Different 
persons are assigned to the parts of—You (the speaker), Tele¬ 
phone Information, Shaw Operator, and Mr. Wadsworth. 

You: Information, please. 

Information: Information. 

You: A. W. Shaw Co., removed from 394 Fourth Ave. to 299 
Madison Ave., new number not in the directory. 


6o 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


Information : A. W. Shaw Co., 299 Madison Ave., Murray 

' * 1A y / • 

Hill 2797. Please call your operator. 

You: Murray Hill 2797 (write it down). 

(Repeat the number to the central operator.) 

Shaw Operator: A. W. Shaw Co. 

You: Mr. Wadsworth, please. 

You wait two or three minutes without getting Mr. Wadsworth 
or any response, and begin to move your receiver hook up and 
down slowly. This signals the central telephone operator, who 
says: Operator. 

You: Please ring Murray Hill 2797 again. 

Operator: A. W. Shaw Co. 

You: I did not get Mr. Wadsworth. 

Operator : I will try to get him for you. 

Mr. Wadsworth : Wadsworth speaking. 

You: This is (give your correct name), member of a study 
group in office practice. Harold Baldwin (give real name), our 
leader, would like to arrange to use the Shaw telephone exchange 
for practice after five o’clock Friday evening. I think Mr. Bald¬ 
win has spoken to you about this matter and already made prelimi¬ 
nary arrangements. 

Mr. Wadsworth : I will ask the operator to give you Mr. 
Smith, and any arrangements you make with him will be all right. 

Mr. Wadsworth signals the operator in his office by moving the 
receiver hook slowly up and down. 

Mr. Wadsworth : Please give this party Mr. Smith. 

Mr. Smith : Smith speaking. 

You: I am speaking for the study group in office practice, 
Harold Baldwin, leader. We should like to arrange to use your 
telephone exchange for practice after five on Friday evening. Mr. 
Wadsworth has said you would arrange this matter. 

Mr. Smith : Yes, I discussed the matter with Mr. Baldwin 
some time ago. I could arrange to stay until 5 :30 if you could be 
here at five o’clock sharp. 

You: We will be at your office Friday at five o’clock sharp. 

(When the conversation is not ended with some statement like 


THE BEST RECOMMENDATION 


61 


the preceding that shows that it is completed, you should say 
“Good-bye” befoie hanging up the receiver.) 

Exercise ? 

When satisfactory preparation has been made through imaginary 
conversations, as suggested in the preceding exercises, arrange¬ 
ments may be made for practice on real telephone exchanges in 
business houses after hours, or Saturday afternoon. The switch¬ 
board operator will need to be present. One group of six or eight 
at a time can be managed most conveniently. Conversations should 
be arranged in advance and assigned in writing to the different 
persons who will take part in the practice. All the extensions may 
be placed on the same open wire, so that all members may hear all 
parts of the conversation, and make criticisms as to voice, manner 
of address, etc. If all the parts to be spoken have been written out 
just as they are to be given, a great deal of practice can be crowded 
into half an hour and every person can have his turn. It is impor¬ 
tant that the plans should be very thoroughly matured in advance, 
on the model of the conversations in Exercise 4, worked out 
with imaginary telephone instruments. Random talking over 
the telephone should be strictly avoided. Some students may be 
at their own telephones at home and may be called on the out¬ 
side wire and take part in the arranged conversations as if they 
were in the office, but usually it will be best to carry on the exercise 
entirely within the office without using any outside lines. 


TALK No. 5 by the Morale Officer on 
The Best Recommendation—a Good Face 

The best recommendation a man can have is a good face. If his 
face is right, he doesn’t need a letter. If his face looks right, he 
doesn’t need to show a prospective employer what some one has 
said about him. If he is honest, his face will show it—honesty will 
stick out all over his face like bristles on a porcupine. 


62 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


If an applicant is frank and sincere, his face will show it. One 
look at his eyes will suffice. One look at his open countenance will 
reveal the truth. 

If he is ambitious, his face will show it. Determination, anxiety 
to succeed, and inquisitiveness will be written in every line, will be 
spelled in every expression. 

If he is unselfish and willing to help others, his face will show 
it. Solicitude and helpfulness will impress themselves upon every 
one. In fact, every good thing that a man can have said about him 
can be seen about him. Every good quality that can be written 
about him can be read in his countenance. 

If a man is right, he will look right. If he is the right kind, he 
will look the part. If he possesses qualities which make for 
strength of character, his looks will reveal them. 

It is impossible for an honest man to look dishonest; for a 
bright, clean-cut man to look dull and slovenly; for an anxious, 
ambitious man to look “dead to the world.” As a man is, so his 
face is. 

A good letter of recommendation is a good thing to have, but 
a good face is a better thing to have. It is all right to have an 
employer write down nice things about you in a letter, but it is 
much better to have the qualities referred to stamped indelibly 
upon your face. It is very fine to be able to say, “Mr. Jones, my 
former employer, said you might call him up and he would tell you 
about me,” but it’s far better if your good face, your determined 
jaw, and your forceful manner make it unnecessary for any 
calling-up to be done. 

I have never seen a person who could not get some kind of 
recommendation, but Eve seen many a man whose every look gave 
the lie to what his letter said about him. I have never yet seen 
a man possessing the right qualities who had to have a letter of 
recommendation to get a position, but I have seen many young men 
whose letters of recommendations could do no possible good in 
helping them find work. It is not what some one says about you 
in a letter that counts, it is what you actually look like. 

Keen-eyed business men of to-day are not easily fooled about 


THE BEST RECOMMENDATION 63 

applicants. They see you as you are and not as you imagine your¬ 
self to be. If there is anything wrong they will usually see it. 

Somehow or other many young men do not seem to think that 
people can look at them and tell the kind of stuff they are made 
of. They do not know that every good quality and every bad 
quality that they possess shows—simply cannot be hid. They 
do not know that every thought makes a visible mark upon their 
countenances. 

A realization of these facts should make every young man 
anxious to form the right habits and seek to acquire the best 
qualities. A realization of these things should cause every one to 
be careful about his thoughts and his acts. 

Remember that your face is an index to your character, that it 
reveals clearly the kind of man you are. Don’t think that you can 
have unclean thoughts and hide the fact from others, or that you 
can be lazy and not let others know it. Don’t think that you can 
hide your true self from the gaze of others. You may have a few 
unclean thoughts, you may be lazy for a little while, and you may 
be indifferent to opportunities for a short time, without any one’s 
being the wiser; but if persisted in, sooner or later they will come 
to the surface. Think right, act right, have the right desires; be 
honest, energetic, and truthful; have snap and persistence; then 
you won’t need a letter of recommendation—your face will be one. 

Suggestions 

Go off alone and have a thoughtful chat with yourself. Get 
really close to your real self and see what kind of person you are. 
Be perfectly honest; do not make believe. Then get before a 
mirror and examine yourself critically. Do the good qualities 
which you think you possess show in your face ? Do the bad ones 
show? What do people think of you, who judge you by your 
looks? If you had to depend on your face for a job, do you think 
you could get one ? Ask some one who knows you only fairly well 
if you look the part of an active, ambitious, wide-awake person, if 
there are any bad qualities that show there. Tell how your face 
impresses you. Do any bad qualities show? If so, how are you 
going to get rid of them? You must fight that out for yourself. 


CHAPTER VI 


Typewriting 

The typewriter began to come into general use about 1880, 
following the steamboat, the railroad, the telegraph, the electric 
light, and the telephone. The typewriter and the telephone 
appeared almost side by side. When all writing had to be done 
by hand, not very many personal letters could be sent out. The 
typewriter has brought a vast business by mail that never could 
have existed had it not been for this most useful machine. The 
great mail-order businesses may be said to be the direct product 
of the typewriter. 

After a time the typewriter was supplemented by machines for 
duplicating form letters, such as the mimeograph, and later the 
multigraph, and other machines. These machines made possible 
enormous numbers of circular letters, and these in turn called for 
more use of the typewriter in answering the replies that came in. 

Pen-written letters were copied in copying presses which now 
are almost unknown. The letters were written with special copying 
ink, and then laid between sheets of tissue paper that had been 
dampened, and so copies of the letters were printed on the tissue- 
paper pages of the book. 

Now the copying press and books of tissue paper have been 
replaced almost entirely by carbon paper, by which two to ten 
copies of a letter or other written page may be made on the type¬ 
writer at the same time. This carbon copy of the reply to a letter 
can be pinned or clipped to the original letter and filed right with 
that letter. By the old system the original letter had to be looked 
up, and then the reply to it had to be found in the copy-book. That 
took a great deal of time. 


64 


TYPEWRITING 


^5 

At first it was thought that any one could operate a typewriter, 
that all you had to do was to sit down and touch the keys. But 
what terrible mistakes were made! When the writing was finished 
it looked like a crazy-quilt. It was found that days and weeks of 
practice were required to make the beautiful and perfect letters 
now sent out by large business houses. 

So schools were opened to teach typewriting. There were 
already schools to teach shorthand, and nothing was more natural 
than that the teaching of typewriting should be added. So thou¬ 
sands of private schools all over the country began to train boys and 
girls in stenography and typewriting. A little later the public high 
schools took up the same sort of training, for it was found that a 
good stenographer needed a good training in spelling, punctuation, 
and grammar if perfect letters were to be produced. 

We have now reached the second stage, when not only the pro¬ 
fessional stenographers operate the typewriter to get out the 
correspondence of business houses, but every clerk, every office 
boy, even every manager needs to know how to operate a type¬ 
writer so as to get out his reports, take care of his private corre¬ 
spondence, and help out with envelope-addressing or the like. 
Many authors now compose their books directly on the typewriter, 
and more and more business houses are finding that correspondents 
can learn to compose their letters directly on the typewriter and so 
need not dictate to a stenographer. Where before two persons 
were required to get out letters, now only one need spend his time 
upon them. 

In every large business office there are usually many typewriters, 
and they are in use seldom more than seven or eight hours a day. 
When they are not in use the junior clerk may practice on one of 
them, and so may become a typewriter operator even if he never ex¬ 
pects to study stenography. Hundreds and thousands of young 
clerks are doing this. One large business proprietor once said he 
would never again hire a manager or an office boy who could not 
operate a typewriter; one who could not run a typewriter was to 
that extent fingerless. 

When people first tried to operate typewriters, they used only 


66 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


the two forefingers, picking out one letter at a time, first with the 
forefinger of the right hand, then with the forefinger of the left 
hand. In order to touch all the keys they had to move the hands 
all over the keyboard. Then some operators began to use the 
middle finger and the third finger. Since the little finger was so 
short and so weak, as it is used so little, they did not for a long 
time think of using the little finger also. 

But after a time a great improvement was made in the method 
of operating the typewriter. The so-called “touch” system was 
invented. So far as possible each of the four fingers had one 
up-and-down row of keys to touch, and since these fingers did not 
have to move very far, they could find the proper keys by the sense 
of touch without the necessity for looking at the keyboard at all. 
This made it possible for a stenographer to keep her eyes on her. 
notebook or whatever she was copying, and not waste time glancing 
first at her copy and then at her fingers to see whether she was 
striking the right keys or not. 

It was very hard, however, to keep the eyes away from the keys. 
We are all accustomed to depend so much on the eyes in every¬ 
thing we do that we are afraid to trust ourselves to the sense of 
touch, except when it is dark and we have to feel our way slowly. 

But there was another very important thing about touch writing. 
As each finger had but three keys to touch, it had less chance to 
make errors than when the hands were thrown all over the key¬ 
board. The standard of commercial accuracy was thus developed 
on a basis of only two or three mistouched keys in the work of a 
whole hour. Careful students found that it took a great deal more 
time and practice to get this high commercial accuracy which busi¬ 
ness now demands when the one-finger method was used, than to 
get the required accuracy by the touch method. 

When the touch method was first invented people were afraid 
of overworking the weak little finger, and so since there were ten 
up-and-down rows of keys on the typewriter for the letters of the 
alphabet and punctuation marks (not counting the extra charac¬ 
ters), they gave the strong forefinger two rows of keys in the 
middle, and began with the fingers on the middle cross row. 


TYPEWRITING 


67 

As you know, some letters are used much oftener than others. 
Printers know this and make up a font of type with 1,000 of the 
letter “e” (the most frequently used), but only 22 of the letter “z,” 
46 of the letter “x,” 50 of the letter “q,” etc. When you consider 
the frequency with which letters are struck on the typewriter you 
find that the four center rows, which the two forefingers must 
operate, represent nearly one-half of all the strokes on the type¬ 
writer, while the outer row operated by the little finger has very 
few strokes indeed, except in case of the letter “a,” so that this 
weak little finger never gets practice enough to make a good work¬ 
ing member of the finger family, and after school is over operators 
cease to use it at all, and so cease to be touch operators. 

It was also found that it was an advantage to start with the 
fingers on the eight keys most frequently used, so that there would 
be fewer occasions to jump to other keys, for mistakes were most 
likely to be made in these jumps. If the three principal fingers 
rest on the keys of the upper row of letters in the middle, e, r, and 
t for the left hand, y, u, and i for the right hand, and the little 
finger (which is shorter) is dropped down on s and 1, the fingers 
will rest for the first or “home” position on keys which make nearly 
one-half of all the strokes on the typewriter. 

Thus the chances for making errors are reduced by as much as 
one-half, and by this improved system it is possible to learn touch 
operating actually in less time than is required to learn sight oper¬ 
ating to the point of accuracy required in business. 

In addition, the keyboard is memorized in about an hour in the 
imagination, through a system of key words such as “wax,” 
“point,” “quert,” etc., and if at first the keys are covered with a 
shield so the eyes cannot watch the fingers, confidence in the sense 
of touch will soon develop, just as water wings help to develop 
confidence to trust one’s self in water and swimming is made 
easier. Of course, the swimmer soon discards water wings, and 
the typewriter operator soon lays aside his shield. 

It may safely be said that commercial accuracy can never be 
attained by the student who picks out the letters on a typewriter 
with one finger. All his life he will be a “dub” operator, he will 


68 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


make so many mistakes that his letters can never be mailed out 
except to friends, and it will be necessary to hire a professional 
stenographer to get out anything of importance. When accuracy 
is taken into account (the commercial standard of only three or 
four errors in an hour), touch typewriting by the improved system 
described above can be learned in much less time than sight oper¬ 
ating. For a minimum speed of io to 25 words a minute only 
35 to 50 hours of practice is required of most persons, or the 
school time of ten days.* 

Assignment on Typewriting and Duplicating Machines 

Typewriting is a study by itself and should be covered in a 
regular typewriting course. But every person entering business 
should become familiar with the appearance and mechanism not 
only of typewriters, but also of mimeographs and multigraphs. 

In most cities the leading typewriter companies have free 
employment offices where there are many typewriting machines on 
which applicants may practice while they are waiting. At certain 
hours of the day, especially on Saturdays, these machines are not 
all in use, and students may go there and learn something about 
the operation of them. 

Another interesting visit can be made to any school where touch 
typewriting is taught. It will pay to watch the fingering while the 
eyes of the operator are on a book or some other object in the room, 
and to see just how the errors are checked up, and what very tiny 
errors are marked with care. The ideal of professional type¬ 
writing is absolute accuracy, not passing over even the tiniest 
mistake. 

A visit should also be made to the office of the A. B. Dick Edison 
Mimeograph, and of the American Multigraph, or to business 
offices where these machines can be seen in operation. Observe 

* The system described above is the Dougherty All-Touch Typewriting, 
edited by Sherwin Cody. The instruction is so complete that the person who 
must learn typewriting without a teacher will find it possible to follow this 
course without difficulty. It is part of Sherwin Cody’s “Business Ability 
Development Course.” 



PUSH AND PULL 69 

how the mimeograph stencils are made, and how the type is set up 
on the roller for the multigraph. Then observe how the stencil is 
put on the machine, or how the large ribbon is adjusted on the 
multigraph. Finally give attention to how the sheets of paper are 
fed in and run off through the turning of a crank. Try turning 
the crank and see just how it ought to be turned for best results, 
for junior clerks often are expected to run these machines. 

Write down in your notebook each of the points to be observed, 
with a space after each point so a note can be made of it. Then 
write out a report on just what was seen. 


TALK No. 6 by the Morale Officer on 
Push and Pull 

I used to tell young people there was no such thing as pull. 
I was mistaken. There is. But it takes push to get it. An 
employee who has push will sooner or later have pull. Pull is the 
momentum that push gives an ambitious worker. 

I have heard many young people complain that they could get 
no advancement because they did not have as much pull with 
the boss as others had. They never stopped to ask themselves the 
question, “Why didn’t I have as big a pull as the other fellow?” 
They never stopped a moment to figure out why it was that the 
boss was more favorably disposed toward others. It never 
occurred to them that if an employee has a pull there’s a reason for 
it—he generally deserves it. 

In modern businesses rarely is advancement put upon any other 
basis than that of efficiency and ability. Friendship and kinship 
do not amount to much when promoting time comes around. The 
employee who can deliver the goods will get the good job, the one 
who knows the business, who can do the work, will be favored. 
The one who has been faithful, who has studied his job, who has 
prepared himself for a bigger job, is sure to be in the good graces 
of the boss, is sure to be recognized. But winning the esteem of 
the employer is not always easy. The beginner with push, the one 
who is continually exerting himself, extending himself, increasing 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


70 

his efforts, making complete use of his energies, has no easy time. 
To have push requires unusual persistence, unusual ability to put 
forth effort. Push means continual effort, intelligent effort, 
earnest effort. It means being on the job all the time with all your 
mind and heart. The person with push thinks hard and thinks 
quickly. He schools himself to form good judgments and make 
quick decisions. To have push means to be alive —not merely 
awake. To have push means to be alive to opportunities. 

The young worker with push will never have cause to complain 
that another is advanced because he has a pull. 

It is only natural that the right kind of employee, the one with 
push, has the good will of his employer. It is only natural that 
such a worker is favored. Employers are human, they like to 
recognize ability and earnest effort. And they are always only too 
glad to show appreciation and to reward the deserving. Thus 
we see how it is that the person with push gets pull—gets the 
better job. 

Don’t go around whining about not having a pull. Don’t be¬ 
grudge your fellow employee his raise or advancement. Know that 
if he is advanced it is because he has earned it, and keep in mind 
that the same privilege is yours. 

Almost every large office has its “sore-heads,” that is, those 
who are sore because some newer or younger employee has been 
advanced beyond them. They are sore at the boss, jealous of the 
one advanced, indignant over the imagined favoritism shown. If 
their soreness were turned to self-pity, their jealousy to shame, 
and their indignation to determination never again to be outdone, 
there might be some hope for them. But it is not a part of the 
make-up of such individuals to consider for a moment that they 
themselves are at fault. They never learn that getting ahead in 
life is a matter of self-help and not pull. They do not realize that 
they lack push. They do not know that it takes push to get pull. 


CHAPTER VII 

Postal Information 

So easy is it in these days to send a letter to some one living in 
a distant state or even in a foreign country that we seldom stop 
to think of the wonderful organization which makes this possible. 
All you have to do when you write a letter to a friend living, say 
in Chicago, is to place a two-cent stamp on it and drop it in the 
mail box in front of your house or in a nearby post office. In a day 
or two, depending upon how far you live from Chicago, the post¬ 
man delivers the letter to your friend’s house. That sounds easy. 
But let us see what actually happened during those two days. Sup¬ 
pose you live in New Orleans. 

Shortly after you drop the letter in the mail box the postman 
comes along and takes the letter to the post office. There a mail 
sorter puts it in a bag with many other letters going north, or in 
the direction of Chicago. The bag is placed on a U. S. mail truck 
and delivered to the postal clerk at the station, who in turn delivers 
it to the clerk on the proper train. Along the route of the train 
other mail is picked up addressed to northern points. Soon the 
clerk sets aside a bag for Chicago letters only, and all letters 
addressed to Chicago, received en route, go into that bag. When 
this mail bag reaches Chicago it is placed on another truck and 
delivered to the central post office. If your friend lives in a suburb 
of Chicago, the letter, together with others destined for that 
suburb, is placed in a bag and sent to the substation nearest your 
friend’s home. At last the postman who has your friend’s address 
on his route gets the letter and delivers it. 

Many million letters are handled by the post office department 
every day, and yet very few are lost. When letters are lost or 
miscarried it is usually the fault of the sender, 

7i 


72 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


It would, therefore, greatly lessen Uncle Sam’s postal troubles 
if every one would be more careful in addressing mail. The name 
and address should be written as distinctly as possible. Of course 
letters going to cities should bear the street and number. As 
explained in a previous chapter, an abbreviation like Cal. for Cali¬ 
fornia may easily be taken for Col. (Colorado) if the writing is 
not plain. This not only means trouble for the post office depart¬ 
ment, but results in delay in delivering the letter. The official 
post office abbreviation for California is now “Calif.” 

Domestic mail matter includes, in addition to that for de¬ 
livery within the United States, mail to and from the American 
Expeditionary Forces in any foreign country and to all distant 
possessions and military posts of the United States. 

It is divided into four classes, with a different rate for each. 

First Class: Letters, postal cards, post cards, all matter 
wholly or partly written, or sealed or otherwise closed against 
inspection. 


Delivery by carrier anywhere. 2c I oz. 

Delivery in same post office where mailed 

(“drop” letters) .. ic I oz. 

Postal Cards and Post Cards. ic each 


(A fraction of an ounce is counted as one ounce.) 

The same rate applies to Canada, Cuba, Mexico, Great Britain, 
and Germany (in direct boats). 

Second Class: Newspapers and periodicals bearing notice 
of entry as second-class matter. There is no limit of weight. 

Newspapers and periodicals (complete copies) when sent un¬ 
sealed by others than the publisher or a news agent, ic 4 oz. 

(Parts of, or clippings from, newspapers or periodicals are 
third-class matter.) 

Third Class: Circulars, miscellaneous printed matter, 
incomplete copies of newspapers and periodicals, proof sheets, cor¬ 
rected proof sheets, and manuscript copy accompanying proof, 
ic 2 oz. 





POSTAL INFORMATION 73 

The limit of weight is four pounds. Printed matter weighing 
over four pounds is fourth-class matter. 

Fourth Class (Parcel Post) : Merchandise, farm and fac¬ 
tory products, seeds, cuttings, bulbs, roots, plants, books (including 
catalogs), and miscellaneous printed matter weighing over four 
pounds. 

(a) Parcels, except books, seeds, plants, 


etc., 4 oz. or less, any distance. ic 1 oz. 

(b) Books, seeds, plants, etc., 8 oz. or less, 

any distance. ic 2 oz. 


(c) Parcels of books, seeds, plants, etc., over 8 oz., 
printed matter over 4 lbs., and all other parcels 
over 4 oz. go at pound rates, according to the 
distance or zone. 

The following table shows the parcel-post rates by zones: 


Local 

1st and 2d* 
(Up to 150 
miles) 

3 d 

(150 to 300 
miles) 

4th t 

(300 to 600 
miles) 

FIVE cents for 
the first pound 
and ONE cent 
for each ad¬ 
ditional TWO 
pounds or frac¬ 
tion thereof. 

FIVE cents for 

the first pound 
and ONE cent 
for each ad¬ 
ditional pound 
or fraction 
thereof. 

SIX cents for 
the first pound 
andTWO cents 
for each ad¬ 
ditional pound 
or fraction 
thereof. 

SEVEN cents 
for the first 
pound and 
FOUR cents 
for each ad¬ 
ditional pound 
or fraction 
thereof. 

5th 

(600 to 1,000 
miles) 

6th 

(1,000 to 1,400 
miles) 

7th 

(1,400 to 1,800 
miles) 

8th 

(Over 1,800 
miles) 

EIGHT cents 
for the first 
pound and SIX 
cents for each 
a d d i t i 0 n a 1 
pound or frac¬ 
tion thereof. 

NINE cents 
for the first 
pound and 
EIGHT cents 
for each ad¬ 
ditional pound 
or fraction 
thereof. 

ELEVEN 

cents for the 
first pound and 
TEN cents for 
each additional 
pound or frac¬ 
tion thereof. 

TWELVE 

cents for each 
pound or frac¬ 
tion thereof. 


* Limit of weight up to third zone 70 pounds, 
f Limit of weight for fourth to eighth zones 50 pounds, 














74 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


The law provides a fine of $100 for enclosing higher class mail 
with a lower class and mailing it at the lower rate with the intent 
to avoid the higher rate of postage. Certain written additions to 
second, third, and fourth class matter are permitted by law, 
however. 

Special Delivery: By placing on a letter or other piece of 
mail matter, in addition to the regular postage, a special delivery 
stamp or ten cents in ordinary postage (when ordinary postage 
stamps are used write under them the words “Special Delivery”), 
prompt delivery by special messenger is assured within prescribed 
hours. 

Registered Mail: All valuable letters and sealed parcels, 
and those for which a return receipt or special care in delivery is 
desired, should be registered at the post office or station and a 
receipt secured. They must not be placed in a letter box or a mail 
drop. A return receipt from the addressee will be obtained only 
on request, which should be indicated by writing the words “Re¬ 
turn Receipt Requested” on the face of the envelope. 

The fee, in addition to the regular postage, on both domestic 
and foreign registered matter is ioc. 

Indemnity for lost and damaged registered mail will be paid as 
follows: 

. Domestic mail, first class (sealed) up to $50 actual value; third 
class (unsealed) up to $25 actual value. The envelope should be 
preserved in cases of rifling and damage. Fourth-class matter 
(parcel post) cannot be registered. It may be insured. 

Insured Mail: Only fourth-class or domestic parcel post 
(but no other) may be insured against loss, rifling, or damage 
equivalent to its actual value for each parcel or the cost of repairs. 

A receipt for each parcel insured is furnished for use in case 
of claim for indemnity, but a return receipt from the addressee 
will be obtained only upon request. 

The fees for insuring mail (in addition to the regular postage) 
are as follows: 

(a) On parcels not to exceed valuation of $5. 3c 

(b) On parcels not to exceed valuation of $25.... 5c 



POSTAL INFORMATION 75 

(c) On parcels not to exceed valuation of $50. . . . 10c 

(d) On parcels not to exceed valuation of $100. . .25c 

Collect on Delivery Mail: Only fourth-class or domestic 

parcel post may be sent C. O. D. The remittance is made by post 
office money order and the fee therefor is included in the amount 
collected from the addressee. 

A receipt is given the sender for a C. O. D. parcel at the time of 
mailing, but no return receipt is furnished, as the remittance shows 
that delivery has been made. 

The fees for C. O. D. mail (in addition to the regular postage) 
are as follows: 

(a) Amount to be remitted not to exceed $ 50. . . 10c 

(b) Amount to be remitted not to exceed $100. . .25c 

These fees also insure against loss, damage, or non-remittance 

within the limits covered by the fees paid. 

Foreign Postage: Letters to foreign countries are 5c for 
each ounce or fraction thereof, 2c for postal or post cards, except 
Canada, Cuba, Mexico, Great Britain, and Germany (in direct 
boats), which are the same as the United States. Printed matter 
is ic for 2 ounces, and parcel post is 12c a pound. 

Wrapping Mail: All matter should be securely wrapped so 
as to bear transmission without breaking or injuring mail bags, 
their contents, or persons handling them. Many articles are dam¬ 
aged in the mails for the reason that they are not properly wrapped 
to withstand the necessary handling. 

Addressing Mail: Because of carelessness in addressing 
and preparing matter for mailing, or the failure of the sender to 
put his name and address on it, millions of letters and other pieces 
of mail, which cannot be returned to the sender, are sent every year 
to the Dead Letter Division. 

Letters without street address are subject to delay. 

Letters, either printed or written, should have the street address 
at the top, or otherwise conspicuously displayed inside, in order 
that the proper address can be given in replying. 

Return address on envelope results in prompt return of letters 
to sender in case they are undeliverable. 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


76 

Use typewriters or ink, never pencil, in addressing envelopes. 
It is better not to abbreviate states like Cal., Col., Md., Mo., etc., 
where there might be confusion. 

Early Mailing: Much congestion of mail occurs at the end 
of the day because of the practice of posting letters at the close of 
the day. Early mailing during the day, at Christmas time, or on 
any other occasion, avoids delay. 

Postage Stamps: The following denominations are issued: 
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 15, 20, 30, and 50c; I, 2, and 5 
dollar, and io-cent special delivery. 

Remittances in postage stamps should not be made in stamps of 
a higher denomination than 2c. Stamps are not redeemable or 
exchangeable at post offices, but ic and 2c stamps may conven¬ 
iently be used for amounts under a dollar. 

Stamps cut from postal cards, embossed stamped envelopes, or 
newspaper wrappers, are not good for postage, but spoiled stamped 
envelopes, wrappers, and postal cards will be redeemed at the post 
office if the stamps have not been canceled. 

Delivery of Mail: Four methods are used for the delivery 
of mail: (i) General delivery; (2) through post-office boxes; 
(3) by carriers in cities where delivery service is in operation; (4) 
by rural and star route carriers. General delivery is intended for 
the use only of those patrons who are not permanently located. 

Postal Money Orders: Application for money orders must 
be made on a special form provided for that purpose at post offices 
or by rural carriers. They cost from 3c up. 

If a larger sum than $100 is to be sent, additional money orders 
will be issued. 

Postal Savings: Any person ten years old or over may 
open a postal savings account in his or her own name by depositing 
one or more dollars in any post office authorized to accept postal 
savings deposits. The limit upon which interest is paid is $1,000. 
The rate of interest is two per cent. 

The United States Government guarantees repayment of de¬ 
posits upon demand. 


POSTAL INFORMATION 


77 


Assignment on Postal Information 

You have already had some practice on enevelope-addressing. 
Begin to collect as many discarded envelopes as possible. Thou¬ 
sands of these are thrown in the waste-basket by business houses 
every day, and it will not be difficult to recover a considerable 
number of them. They should have as many different addresses 
as possible, and represent all kinds of letters, typewritten, pen- 
written, etc. Inspect these envelopes, read the addresses, and see 
how well the addressing correspondents observed the rules we have 
already studied. 

1. Are the state, city, and street address on separate lines so 
the postman can read them instantly? 

2. Is there a return card on the upper left-hand corner or on 
the flap of the envelope? 

3. Was a good space left for the postmark? 

4. Was the stamp placed squarely in the upper right-hand 
corner? What was the amount of postage? What letters require 
one cent and what two cents? 

/ 

Visit to the Post Office 

Students should make a visit to a post office and get information 
on the following subjects, either by observation or by asking 
questions of some postal employee. Write the questions in your 
notebook, and enter the answers according to what you see. Two 
visits may be necessary to cover them all. 

1. - Where are the letters deposited? How often are collections 
made from the boxes downtown? From the residence district 
boxes? How are the letters sorted after they are brought to the 
post office ? 

2. How do you send a letter special delivery? Is a special 
delivery stamp necessary? By what other method may a letter 
be sent special delivery? What does special delivery assure as 
to delivery of the letter? Can packages be sent special delivery? 
Can books at book postage ? 


78 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


3. Find the window for registered mail. What is the fee for 
registering ? Can you register a package as well as a letter ? What 
do you get to prove that a letter has been registered ? What should 
you write on that slip so you will know what it refers to? What 
happens if the letter or package is lost? 

4. Find the money-order window and if possible get one of 
the blank forms on which applications for money orders are made. 
What needs to be written on these application forms? What do 
money orders cost? What happens if one is lost in the mail? 

5. Get a chance to look at a pile of packages that have just 
come into the post office. Are any of the packages jammed or 
torn? What handling do packages have to stand in the ordinary 
rough handling? How should books be packed so the corners 
will not be broken? 

6. Examine the boxes at the post office. What people prefer 
to use boxes instead of having their mail delivered at their address? 
What do boxes cost a quarter ? How do you get mail from the 
post office if you have forgotten your key or lost it? 

7. Find the general delivery window. What people get their 
mail at this window? Do all letters without address go to the 
general delivery, or should letters for the general delivery have 
those words written on the envelope? 

8. Find the place where second-class mail is received. Do 
newspapers which go second class from the publisher have stamps 
on them? What is the rate and how is the postage collected? 
When you want to mail a newspaper entered as second-class mat¬ 
ter, what do you need to pay in postage? How do you know a 
paper is entered as second-class matter? 

9. Find the place where unsealed printed circulars are received. 
What weight is allowed to go for one cent ? How are precanceled 
stamps used? What writing is allowed on third-class matter? 
May a multigraph letter go third class if it is signed in ink and 
the address of the person to whom it goes is filled in on the type¬ 
writer at the head of the letter, and it is dated? 

10. What is fourth-class matter? What is the rate on very 
small packages? If an article weighs five ounces, at what rate 


WORK 


79 

does it go? What is the parcel post rate to all distant points, as 
New York to Utah or California? 

11. Should foreign letters be mailed at the same place as home 
letters? To what countries is the postage on letters the same as 
in the United States? What is the regular foreign postage rate 
to other countries? What is the foreign parcel post rate? What 
is the foreign book rate ? 

12. If you want a letter to go safely through the mail, what 
do you do? If you want a package to go safely through the mail, 
what do you do? How many letters or packages in a thousand 
are lost in the mails ? 

13. How can goods be sent C.O.D. through the mail? 

14. Who can make postal savings deposits, and how are they 
made? 

If you have a stamp album or can borrow one from a friend, 
it would be interesting to look it over and examine the different 
kinds of stamps. 

TALK No. 7 by the Morale Officer on 

Work 

An employee’s success depends upon his attitude toward work. 
If he dislikes it, if he shuns it, if he runs from it, he is a failure 
already. On the other hand, if he learns to love his work, if he 
learns to put all of his strength into his work, he is certainly on 
the road that leads to success. 

The world is full of people who do not like to work. To them 
any kind of work is unpleasant, is drudgery. They only work 
because they have to. They must work to live. If they could, 
they would stop and never do another stroke. They would let 
other people make their living for them. They would live on 
charity. They would do anything to keep from working. 

Dislike for work causes thievery. Every thief is lazy. The 
thief wants to make a living without working for it. He wants 
to get something for nothing. He is so no-account lie will take a 
great risk in order to keep from working. He loses all sense of 


8o 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


right and justice. He has no heart, no conscience. He is as low- 
down a piece of humanity as it is possible to conceive of, just 
because he dislikes work. 

Fear of work causes a great deal of the world’s unhappiness. 
Every lazy man is unhappy. The idler passes a weary day. The 
shirker cannot enjoy recreation. The slothful knows not the real 
meaning of vacation. The loafer never gets a holiday. The tramp 
never rests. 

Man was made that he might work. He was fashioned that he 
might do things, he was put here that he might act. As long as 
he fulfills these natural functions, as long as he strives and works 
and labors, he is happy. The moment he lets up, the moment he 
gets lazy and tired of keeping busy, he invites failure and sorrow. 
Man must learn to love work if he would be completely happy. 
He must enjoy putting forth effort. He must have the ability to 
put his whole life into some endeavor. He must be able to get at 
his work with enthusiasm, with joy, with concentrated energy. 
If he can do this, he can accomplish big results. And the truest 
pleasure comes from accomplishment, from a feeling of satisfac¬ 
tion which accompanies progress. When a man works with all 
his might, when he goes about his day’s work energetically and 
earnestly, when he will not listen to the voice of laziness, when he 
will not let the feeling of lethargy take possession of him, he is 
paving for himself a sure road to happiness. 

Work is man’s salvation. It does wonders for him. It cures 
despondency. It drives away gloom. It puts fear to rout. It 
leaves no room for jealousy. It drowns out disagreements. It 
breeds peace and harmony. It is man’s best friend. 

I feel sorry for the young person just starting out in life who 
finds work disagreeable, who can get no pleasure out of honest 
endeavor, and who is always glad when the day is over and is never 
glad when the day begins. Something is wrong with such a person. 
He needs to be made over. He needs to catch a glimpse of a future 
which is in store for him if he will but put his shoulder to the 
wheel now. He needs to look about him and see what men and 
women are doing, see the wonders of their hands and brains. He 


WORK 


81 


needs to understand that such accomplishments are within his 
power if he will but change his attitude and get busy. He should 
feel that it is his duty to play as big a part in the world’s activities 
as any one. He should determine that no one can beat him, no one 
can surpass him in energy. 

Young people, if you have been lazy and indifferent, wake up. 
Try tackling a job once with all your might. Try for one day to 
keep moving, to do everything you can see to do with enthusiasm, 
with a smile. Know that through work you can make life worth 
living. Stop being afraid of it, stop running from it. Welcome 
it, attend to it without a thought of quitting, and be happy in 
the knowledge that you are getting somewhere. 


f I 



I 


CHAPTER VIII 
Telegrams 

The world has made progress as methods of travel and of com¬ 
munication have been improved. Perhaps the men who have con¬ 
tributed most to man’s success and happiness are those who helped 
to make possible such things as railroads, automobiles, steamship 
lines, telephones, and telegraphs. Take away the five things just 
mentioned and what a different place the world would be! If 
these things had not been invented and developed, many lands now 
thickly settled would be little developed. The present vast machin¬ 
ery of business, with its millions of daily transactions, would be 
impossible. 

These facts are mentioned in order that you may understand 
something of the importance of these and similar inventions, and 
realize how dependent modern business is upon good transporta¬ 
tion facilities and quick, easy methods of communication. 

In the daily business affairs, particularly as regards local mat¬ 
ters, the telephone plays an important part. The lesson on tele¬ 
phoning should assist every person to learn to use this instrument 
properly, and at the same time gain a better understanding of the 
many uses to which the telephone can be put. 

Likewise,’ the service rendered business by the wonderful ma¬ 
chinery of the post-office department can hardly be overestimated. 
The great work of this department is of course made largely pos¬ 
sible by the country’s railroads, stretching like nerves in every 
direction to every part of the land. 

But there is still a fourth instrument which plays a most impor¬ 
tant part in business to-day. It is the telegraph. 

Few people realize just how important a part the telegraph lines 

82 


TELEGRAMS 


83 

play in the daily life of our country, business and otherwise. 
Take the daily newspapers. All of the large dailies depend upon 
the telegraph lines, including cables, for the greater portion of 
their news. 

Again, it would be virtually impossible for many large business 
houses to operate without the use of telegraphic service. The busi¬ 
ness is usually a small one that does not send or receive at least 
one message every day. 

Like the telephone, the telegraph is an American invention. 
It was in 1836 that Samuel F. B. Morse perfected the first tele¬ 
graph instrument. Business men were quick to realize its possi¬ 
bilities, and soon wires were stretched from one end of the country 
to the other. The rapid development of railroads in this country 
was made possible largely through the telegraph, since the move¬ 
ment of trains is dependent upon telegraphic orders from head¬ 
quarters (the despatched office). 

The different kinds of messages are: 

Regular Day Message: Up to ten words (not including the 
address or signature) there is a fixed charge proportionate to the 
distance sent. Above ten words there is an additional charge per 
word, proportionate to the initial charge. No charge is made for 
the address or signature. For example, the rate on ten words 
from New York to Albany is thirty cents. The charge for 
each additional word is two and one-half cents. The rate on ten 
words from New York to San Francisco is one dollar and twenty 
cents, while a charge of eight and one-half cents is made for each 
additional word. 

Fifty-Word Night Letter: In order that the wires may be 
in constant use and to prevent overcrowding in the daytime, the 
telegraph companies offer special inducements for night use of 
the wires. A fifty-word night letter may be presented at the 
telegraph office at any hour of the day or night, up to two A. M., 
to be forwarded by telegraph at the company’s convenience during 
the night and delivered the following morning. The rate for such 
a night letter is the same as for the ten-word day message. Thus 
a fifty-word night letter may be sent from New York to San 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


84 

Francisco for one dollar and twenty cents. No code language 
may be used in night letters. 

Night Message: A night message, like a night letter, is 
accepted at any time up to two A. M. for delivery the next morning. 
Code language may be used. A minimum charge is made for a 
message of ten words or less, with an additional charge for each 
word over ten. A ten-word night message may be sent from New 
York to San Francisco for seventy cents. 

Fifty-Word Day Letter: These may be presented at the 
telegraph office at any time and will be transmitted and delivered 
to the party as promptly as the company’s facilities permit. The 
rate is one and one-half the night-letter rate. These tele¬ 
grams, on account of the cheap rate, are subordinated to the regular 
ten-word day messages. 

Cablegrams: A cablegram is a telegram sent to countries 
across the sea bv means of a cable. 

m/ 

Marconigrams are wireless telegrams. 

Telegraph companies install in many business houses what is 
known as a call box, which is connected by wire to the telegraph 
office. By a simple turning of the crank on the box notice is given 
to the telegraph office that a messenger boy is wanted. If the 
firm has no call box the messenger must be called by telephone. 

Telegrams and cablegrams may be telephoned by telephone 
subscribers to the telegraph office at any hour of the day or night 
for transmission to any part of the world. The subscriber need 
only give his name and telephone number to have the telegraph 
tolls charged in an account which will be rendered monthly. 

Telephone delivery of a message will be made by the telegraph 
company if such delivery is desired. The usual way to indicate 
that telephone delivery is desired is to put the telephone number 
after the name instead of the address. 

Money can also be sent by telegram. The sender deposits the 
desired amount with the telegraph company, which wires its office 
at destination to deliver to the party mentioned, upon proper 
identification, the amount of money so deposited. 


TELEGRAMS 85 

Call boxes may be used for calling special messengers (A. D. T. 
Service) to perform any kind of messenger or delivery service. 

Assigment on Telegrams 

Where is the nearest Western Union telegraph office? 

Where is the nearest Postal telegraph office? 

Is there any difference in the rates charged by these two com¬ 
panies? Is there any other telegraph company? 

We will suppose that you are on a vacation in the country and 
wish to send a telegram to your father at his business or home 
address. Consider just how you would write the address so there 
would be no difficulty in delivering the telegram without delay. 

In this telegram you wish to tell your father that you expected to 
be at home that night as you wrote him, but missed your train 
and would not be at home until ten o’clock the next morning. 
Also that your mother, who is with you, will cqme home the next 
week, Monday. Get all > this into ten words, considering what 
your father will already know so you do not have to state that 
part. Does any part of the name and address or your signature 
need to be included in the ten words? What would it cost to 
send this telegram as a regular message from the place you select? 
How can you find out what the rate would be? What would it 
cost as a night message? 

What is the rate on a fifty-word night letter? A fifty-word day 
letter? When would these letters be delivered? Under what 
circumstances would you wish to send a telegraphic letter ? 

Get answers to the following questions at the nearest telegraph 
office: 

What is a registered cable address? Does a person have to 
pay for registering a cable address? If a cablegram came 
addressed simply “Shercody, New York,” how would it be deliv¬ 
ered ? Does the address have to be paid for as well as the body 
of the message ? How about the signature ? What is the rate from 
New York to London for each word? Does “New York” count 
as one word or two? 


86 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 

How can you send money by telegraph or cable? 

Visit some business house where there is a messenger call and 
see how a call is made. Will telegraph messengers carry packages 
within the city where they live ? 


TALK No. 8 by the Morale Officer on 
Mental and Physical Alertness 

There are no more important traits than mental and physical 
alertness. Mental alertness means open-mindedness and quickness 
of thinking. Physical alertness means willing muscles, and open 
eyes and ears. 

In the first place, in order to be mentally alert one must be 
willing. He must be anxious to do. He must keep this thought 
forever in his mind: “What can I do to get ahead? What can 
I do to make progress ?” 

But the right kind of willingness is not all concerned with 
helping one’s self only. Unless one delights in helping others, 
unless he likes to be of service, to bring happiness to others, and 
unless he feels that many little unselfish acts are due from him 
as a young worker and citizen, he will not be completely on the 
alert. 

Mental alertness is absolutely necessary if one would see the 
thousands of little things which he should do. The possessor of a 
slow, stagnant mind will fail utterly when it comes to performing 
the many little tasks which make up his possibilities for progress 
and usefulness. He will stumble right over his legitimate work in 
his search for a big job, little realizing that only in proportion as 
he conquers the little things is he capable of performing big tasks. 

Nearly every one can be mentally alert for a little while, but 
many soon get weary of the strain and lapse back into a kind of 
mental lassitude or sleepiness from which they often never awake. 
To be wide awake all the time requires effort; it requires vigilance; 
it requires painful application. Only the unusual person can stay 
on the alert. 


MENTAL AND PHYSICAL ALERTNESS 


87 

The question might be asked, “What makes a person unusual? 
Is it natural ability ?” Not often. Mental alertness is a trait which 
can be acquired by most of us only as a result of a great deal of 
self-schooling and self-training. 

Now, physical alertness is a natural result of mental wide- 
awakeness. First the mind must will, and then the body obeys. 
The desire to do, the desire to keep awake and see things must 
first exist, and then must the muscles and eyes and hands and feet 
be ready and willing to respond. The thought to do something is 
useless without action. And, as a rule, the act must be immediate. 
Willingness, then, is only the first step. Ability to act, and act at 
once if necessary, must follow. There must be no hesitancy, 
there must be complete accord between mind and muscle. How 
often it is that we have thoughts of action and see opportunities 
to do without even turning our hands. Mental and physical 
alertness, therefore, call for action, for life, get-up, go, push, vigor, 
determination, will-power, eternal vigilance, and continual self- 
prodding. 

The person who determines to keep on the alert will find that 
there are two natures within him striving for the ascendancy. One 
is the tendency to let things go by, to take things easy. The other 
is the tendency which seeks to overcome this feeling of lethargy 
and induce the individual at all times to be wide-awake. The first 
nature says, “You are all right. You are making sufficient 
progress. You are doing pretty well as you are. Don’t exert 
yourself too much. You’ll come out all right in the end somehow 
or other.” This nature tries to persuade you that you do not 
have to be continually bending every energy, that you do not have 
to keep forever on the alert, that you do not have to use every 
possible ounce of reserve power and strength. This nature strives 
to make you forget that the other fellows are alive every minute 
trying to do something, trying to take advantage of every little 
opportunity to learn and make progress. This nature makes a 
person forget ambition, it invites him to follow the course which 
cannot but lead to failure. It makes him believe that the doing 


S8 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


of the little things is unimportant—beneath him. It undermines 
his whole constructive nature. 

But the other tendency is one that invites effort and enthusiasm 
and complete wide-awakeness. It helps one to see things, it 
makes him do things. It keeps him on the go. It makes him 
happy because he sees that he is making progress in his fight for 
advancement. It points out the little things. It helps him to 
anticipate important tasks, both large and small. 

The question that each one of us must answer is, “Which nature 
will win? Which will be in control of my life?” 

Every young person has it in his power to answer aright. Every 
human being is so made that he can choose his path. He can 
trample beneath his feet every inclination to loaf, every power that 
pulls him down, and he can give ear only to the voice which says: 
“Work, work, work. Keep awake. Keep your eyes open. Do not 
go to sleep for a moment. Thirst for opportunities. Show enthu¬ 
siasm. Earnestly seek chances to be of service. Never have to 
be told to do—know what and when and how because of your own 
initiative.” 

One reason why many young workers lack alertness is that they 
get tired of being watchful. They lack that peculiar characteristic 
which enables them to be known as “employees of snap,” and 
which acts as a kind of spring from which flow life and action. 
Every young man or woman who is strong and well should have a 
great deal of energy to be turned loose on short notice. Being 
slow on the start and easily tired out should be left to the old. 
Youth should know nothing but intense activity. 

When one makes up his mind to be on the alert he should begin 
at the moment of his decision and not wait. The trouble with 
most resolutions is that some future date is appointed for starting. 
A convenient time is desired, but as a rule it never arrives. Being 
on the alert implies inconvenience. It is a kind of continual denial 
of personal wants and wishes. It is a perfect example of the 
denying of self at present in order more fully to realize better 
things for the future. It is sensible farsightedness. It is foresight 
which is sure to bring returns. 


MENTAL AND PHYSICAL ALERTNESS 89 

Alertness means something more than having eyes and ears 
open. It means a receptive openness. It is one thing to have 
your eyes open—it is another to see. It is one thing to have your 
ears open—it is another to hear and grasp. It is one thing to have 
a strong young body with well-developed muscles—it is another to 
be able to make them perform with alacrity. 

The alert man will know what to do in emergencies. The man 
who is asleep will be taken unawares. He will be helpless. His 
mind will think too slowly and his muscles will act behind time. 
The alert man will be ready when the many little unexpected 
things happen; and when the unusual opportunities arise to do 
things he will not have to be told. His mind runs along the right 
channel. He thinks progress and aggressiveness. He thinks action. 

A great aid to mental alertness is cheerfulness. The gloomy 
can’t think. The morbid, downcast mind is sluggish. Cheerfulness 
is like an oil which makes the hinges of the mind work smoothly. 
Unhappiness and gloominess cause the mind to rust. 

Mental and physical alertness mean progress, they mean success, 
they mean everything good for the man or woman who will 
cultivate them. 

In every place there is a certain work to be done every day 
which cannot be anticipated, which cannot be apportioned. No 
set rules can be made to cover this work, and its accomplishment 
calls for wide-awakeness, foresight, and unlimited energy on the 
part of some one in the office. (Of course, this same thing is true 
with regard to work anywhere, at home for example.) This 
work should be done by the beginner. If he does not see it, if he 
has to be told, if he has to have some one show him every move, 
he will be more of a hindrance than a help. The alert clerk must 
not only do his own work, but he must see the other little things 
that must be attended to and do them without being asked or 
urged. Then, and then only, will he be efficient, will he really 
give satisfaction. 

Two junior clerks enter the office in the morning. One goes 
about his work. The other pauses long enough to pick up some 
paper that the janitor missed, to ventilate the office properly, to 


90 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


turn off some lights that are not needed, to rearrange some chairs 
and furniture that are slightly out of place, and to put the telephone 
book where it belongs. Quickly and without any fuss he does 
these things and then goes about his work, and soon catches up 
with his fellow-employee. The first did his duty, or his prescribed 
work. The second did more than his duty. He was mentally and 
physically alert. He will see when a visitor comes in that a chair is 
provided, when a sudden rain-storm comes up that the windows are 
put down, when the file gets too full that a transfer is made, that 
the desks are cleaned when dirty, that the calendar is kept up to 
date. In short, he will endeavor to do everything that should be 
done without being told to do it. 

But it is difficult, and perhaps a little misleading, to give examples 
of alertness, because being alert consists primarily in doing those 
things which cannot often be anticipated, which cannot be worked 
out ahead of time. 


CHAPTER IX 


Filing 

It is not the purpose of this course to teach any particular 
method or system of filing, but rather to give the student a gen¬ 
eral idea of files and their uses. 

The purpose of files is to facilitate the locating of letters and 
records. The efficiency of any filing system can be judged by the 
ease with which papers may be found when wanted. That system 
is always best which insures accuracy and at the same time con¬ 
sumes the least possible time in operating, both in filing and in 
finding. To be able to find a paper quickly requires accuracy in 
filing. It often takes three or four hours to find a letter incor¬ 
rectly filed in a moment of carelessness. 

Each business has a filing system to suit its own peculiar needs, 
and probably no two concerns whose business is similar use exactly 
the same system. 

It is always the first duty of the new file clerk to learn thor¬ 
oughly the system used, and then adhere to that plan strictly. If, 
later, after careful thought, he sees where improvements can be 
made, or can suggest the use of some plan previously learned, he 
should present it in writing to the proper person. 

Filing Terms 

1. Vertical filing is the filing of papers on edge. 

2. Flat filing is laying the papers flat. 

3. Index guides are the cardboard divisions used to separate 
the papers in the file. They may be lettered or numbered, or may 
bear a special name. 

4. A folder is usually made of manila paper which holds more 

91 


92 FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 

than one letter or record. An alphabetical folder is a tabbed let¬ 
tered folder. 

5. A tab is the numbered or lettered projection of the division 
guide or folder which extends above the guide or folder. Tabs 
may be extensions of the guide cards or folders, or they may be 
metal or celluloid attachments. 

There Are Four General Systems of Filing 

1. Alphabetical. 

2. Geographical. 

3. Numerical. 

4. Subject. 

All four systems, or combinations of them, may be used in the 
same office. 

In an alphabetical file the tabs on the index guides are lettered. 
The number of guides or subdivisions of the alphabetical files 
depends upon the volume of the papers to be filed. Where a few 
thousand letters are handled a simple index of 150 divisions would 
be as follows: Aa; Aba-abb; Abd-Abl and so on to Z. An in¬ 
dex of this kind, together with the correspondence, should occupy 
at least four drawers. The outside of each drawer should be 
labeled A-D, E-K, K-R, S-Z, to enable one to know which 
drawer to refer to. 

Alphabetical filing is a direct method of filing letters according 
to names corresponding to lettered guide cards bearing the letters 
of the alphabet. Where correspondence is of sufficient volume, 
the correspondent is assigned a folder which is filed back of 
the guide card in its proper subdivision in the files. If corre¬ 
spondence of a miscellaneous nature is to be filed, it goes into the 
miscellaneous folder, which is generally the last folder in a sub¬ 
division, and is recognized by the tab corresponding in lettering to 
the subdivision guide card. When miscellaneous correspondence 
becomes of sufficient volume or importance it is assigned to an 
individual folder and filed in the above manner. 

This system is probably in most general use and should be em- 


FILING 


93 


ployed wherever possible, as it is the quickest method of filing 
and finding papers, and no card index is necessary; but “cross- 
reference” sheets are often of great assistance in locating material. 

In Geographical filing, letters are filed according to the town and 
state from which they come rather than according to the name of 
the writer, but when several persons write from the same town 
these letters are arranged alphabetically according to name. 

The geographical method is used by wholesale houses, manufac¬ 
turing concerns, banks, and other organizations where a territorial 
division is essential. Guide index cards bear the names of the 
states, cities, or other geographical divisions. A file of this kind 
can be arranged so as to have the city index cards follow the state 
cards. For example, following a New York State index card 
would be: 

Albany 

Buffalo 

Ithaca 

New York City, etc. 

The Numerical system of filing requires a card index to locate 
the material in the cabinets (or letter files). The usual method is 
to place all material relating to a certain individual, organization, or 
subject in a folder, each folder being numbered consecutively and 
placed in the cabinet consecutively. An index card for each folder 
is made out and is filed in the card index file alphabetically, accord¬ 
ing to the name of the correspondent. From this card file you have 
to find out the correspondent’s number before you can locate his 
letter file. When you can remember all the numbers, the numerical 
file is very convenient. What is known as a “cross index” or 
“cross reference” is thus established. 

This method of filing has many advantages over an alphabetical 
file in the matter of cross reference, which is a quick method of 
locating all papers relating to one name or subject. But it necessi¬ 
tates reference to an index before material can be located and the 
numbering of each piece of correspondence to conform to the num¬ 
ber on the folder before it can be filed away. 


94 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


Subject filing, even in its simplest form, is complicated and is 
generally operated in a separate and distinct group from the regular 
files. It may be operated by a direct alphabetical arrangement, a 
decimal arrangement, or by a numerical arrangement. It is used 
when more importance is attached to the subject of the letter or 
catalog than to the individual writing the letter. Price-lists, form 
letters, and catalogs are commonly filed according; to subject. 

In filing letters it is essential to know whether they should be 
filed under the firm name or the name of the individual signing. 
If the latter, and the name is hard to decipher, it may often be 
found printed on the letterhead above. An aid in deciphering ini¬ 
tials is the stenographer’s lettering on the lower left-hand corner. 
For example, if the letter has been dictated by C. H. Hudson, a 
stenographer with the initials C. J. will indicate the same as follows: 
CHH/CJ. When in doubt as to name or initials, always consult 
others. Do not guess at it, as the letter may thus be lost. 

Correspondence should always be arranged in the folders in date 
order, generally the latest date in front, as the latest dates are most 
referred to. 

Accuracy is essential. A thorough knowledge of the alphabet is 
important, as the dictionary order must be followed, that is to say, 
the sequence of letters to the last letter of the word must be main¬ 
tained. 

Illustration: 

Cartben, S. M. 

Cartben, S. N. 

Carter, A. 

Carter, A. B. 

Carver, Jas. 

Carver, Jas. E. 

Nearly every organization has, or should have, definite rules 
for indexing and filing. It is the first duty of the clerk to acquaint 
himself with these rules. For example, here are two arrange¬ 
ments possible for filing material: First, one firm will prefer to 
file all letters from individuals in a division of the alphabet in al- 


FILING 


95 

phabetical order followed by all titles bearing “and Company”; 
second, others prefer a strict dictionary arrangement eliminating 


the hyphen and the 
Illustration: 

No. i 

Adams, Benj. 
Adams, Chas. A. 
Adams, F. A. 
Adams-Berkley Co. 
Adams, A. & Co. 
Adams & Co. 


No. 2 

Adams, A. & Co. 
Adams & Company 
Adams-Berkley Co. 
Adams, Chas. A. 
Adams, F. A. 
Adams, Frederick 


Transferring 

Transferring is the shifting of correspondence from the files in 
order to keep them “current.” If this were not done the files 
would soon fill up with expired or dormant material. It is, there¬ 
fore, essential that this dead material be transferred to “Transfer 
Cases” which are of cheaper construction than the filing cabinets. 

This is usually done periodically, according to the peculiarities 
of the business. The general rule is annually or semiannually. 

A firm which transfers annually would retain in the current 
files one year’s correspondence. Therefore, at the beginning of 
1923 they would transfer all of 1921 and retain in the current files 
all of 1922—at the beginning of 1924 all of 1922 would be trans¬ 
ferred and so on. Each year the operation is repeated. Transfer 
drawers or boxes should be carefully labeled, as it is sometimes 
necessary to refer back to these old files. 

Safeguard Arrangement for Filing Papers 

On page 97 appears a model arrangement of a Vertical File 
Drawer, having every possible mechanical safeguard to prevent 
papers or letters from getting into the wrong folder. 

Fig. 1—The Alphabetical Pressboard Guides, tabbed in three 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


96 

consecutive positions to the left of the center, do not interfere with 
the names written on the Right Tab Folders. 

Fig. 2—The Alphabetical Tab Folders are intended only for 
letters and papers of a miscellaneous character. These folders 
are placed directly behind the Guides and bear the same indexing. 
They eliminate the confusion that often occurs when letters of a 
miscellaneous character are stored in a separate file. For example, 
if an inquiry comes from A. J. Anderson, who is not a regular 
correspondent, his letter, with copy of reply attached, would go 
into the “A” Alphabetical Tab Folder. 

Should further correspondence develop, the original inquiry 
would then be taken out of this Alphabetical Folder and the name 
written on a Right Tab Folder intended to hold several papers 
relating to one subject, or for correspondence conducted with one 
party. 

Fig. 3—The Right Tab Folders are used for names of im¬ 
portant customers or subjects. 

The name on the Right Hand Tab is quickly discernible, be¬ 
cause of no interference with the Guide Tabs. 

An arrangement so simple as this, and one which is as easy for 
the eye to follow as it is for the hand to manipulate, should prevent 
the complications arising from misplaced letters. 

Fig. 4—When letters or papers are taken from the filing de¬ 
partment, record is made on the Out Card, which serves to index 
the date and name of the party to whom charged. 

With such precautionary measures, any delay in promptly find¬ 
ing desired papers can be charged up to carelessness. 

Fig. 5—Matter pertaining to special subjects can be filed in 
colored folders. 


Assignment on Filing 

The subject of filing deserves considerable study, since it is 
important for beginners in business, and requires a care and ac¬ 
curacy not usually appreciated. 

The student should first of all visit a company that sells filing 


FILING 


97 








1 /W-U/vx/a 


TTU AjtA, 


(Bv\/ OjaAyu^l. thLu iju 


TtoMkU^BJLJU^ 


Ilili Atut I 




7(B.alfc/tno'U. 


1 / iB-a^Lf ^ 


,A jhdstftJl faj/jjjlir 


7 '$ouM»-vt. S'Jaa^ 


7 ‘LLtvnxZ. -j£ T 


■/ dcU**t I 


■&-ij+r<X<jJL J7 q / T _ \_ 

T7~~<nm\ >h 


^Lv»n. 




Fig’. 3 

Right Tab Folder 
Important Names 
Always 
Conspicuous. 


Fig. 5 

Colored Folder 
for Special 
Subjects. 
Furnished 
in Blue £ 
or Red. j= 


Left Tab 
Alphabetical 
Folders for 
Miscellane¬ 
ous Letters 
and 

Papers. r f= 


Fig. 




Fig. i j 

Alphabetical Pressboara 
Guides 

Left Hand Tabs 
Distributed Three 
Across 

Do Not Interfere 
with 

Tabs of Folders. 


Fig. 4 

Out Card Indicates 
Removal of Papers 
from File. 
Furnished in Red. 
















































































































































































FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


98 

cabinets, etc. Examine the following carefully so that you feel 
fairly familiar with them: 

Plain folders for vertical files, 

Colored folders, 

A plain box file, 

A single-drawer transfer case fitted with 150-guide indexes, a 
four-drawer cabinet with the index guides distributed in the four 
drawers, 

State guides, 

Numerical guides, 

A tray holding about 1,000 cards 3x5 inches in size, with cards 
of different colors; alphabetical guide cards; month guide cards; 
blank guide cards on which names or subjects may be written. 

Collect one or two hundred letters of miscellaneous character 
for practice use in filing. Or you may take blank sheets of paper 
and copy on each sheet a different name and address for use in 
filing practice. 


Exercise 1 

Write on a sheet of paper fifty miscellaneous names and ad¬ 
dresses in columns, and then arrange these in alphabetical order. 

Select from the local telephone directory a list of twenty com¬ 
pany names and addresses, including several with “& Co./’ and 
arrange them in proper alphabetical order. Check your errors 
and correct them by referring to the telephone directory. Copy 
the corected list in your notebook. 


Exercise 2 

A collection of one hundred miscellaneous letters, or blank 
sheets of paper on which addresses have been written should be 
distributed into a practice file. It should not take more than 
twenty minutes to do this correctly. Verify your filing to see 
whether you have made any mistakes. 


FILING 


99 


Visits to Inspect Filing Systems 

From the companies that sell filing cabinets it will be possible 
to obtain a list of business houses where various forms of filing 
are in use, namely— 

A well developed alphabetical file, 

A good geographical file, 

A good subject file, 

A numerical file. 

You should try to visit various business houses so that you may 
gain a general working knowledge of the use of each of the four 
methods of filing. 

For the purpose of such visits the following questions should be 
written in the notebook and answers secured for each question: 

1. See a folder containing the correspondence of an individual 
or firm. Where is the name written on the folder? How many 
letters does each folder seem to contain? 

2. See a folder containing miscellaneous correspondence. How 
is this folder marked? When the file clerk must look for a letter, 
how does he know whether to look for an individual folder or to 
look into the miscellaneous folder ? 

3. Observe the dates of letters in any one folder and state 
where the latest letters to be received are placed, whether in the 
front or at the back. 

4. Is the filing done by the firm name or by the name of the 
individual writing the letter? Why should the firm name be 
preferred in most cases? In what cases would the filing need to 
be under the name of the individual writing the letter for a firm? 

Note —It would be helpful if you could get permission to file 
at least one letter, on your own initiative though under the direct 
observation of the file clerk; and also to find one letter mentioned 
to you by the file clerk. 

5. When a letter is taken out, what sort of “out” card is placed 
in the file where the letter was, and how is that card marked ? 

6. Why is a geographical file used where one is found in an 
actual business house? Are there state guides? Are there city 


100 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


guides behind the state guides? In geographical filing, what does 
the file clerk look for first? Second? Is the alphabetical order 
of the names considered at all? 

7. Where a subject file is found, what is it used for ? Who 
selected the subjects under which to file? How does the file clerk 
know under what subject to place any item? Is it harder to know 
where to file in a subject file than in an alphabetical or geograph¬ 
ical file? 

The numerical file is not common enough to justify much atten¬ 
tion. 


TALK No. 9 by the Morale Officer on 
Teamwork in Business 

Occupying a position in the business world is a more serious 
matter than attending school. Of course the ambitious, serious- 
minded boy or girl usually measures up to the requirements of 
school, and attending to school duties properly is not an unim¬ 
portant matter. But there is not the tension about school that 
there is in business. Life is more carefree and easy. Mistakes 
or errors usually affect no one but the individual. One’s respon¬ 
sibility goes little further than preparing assignments properly. 

From the day that you accept a position in the business world 
you assume certain responsibilities to which you must prove equal 
at all times. Your mistakes, no matter how trivial, have an im¬ 
portant effect not only upon you but upon the conduct of the 
business. You will be a part of the business mechanism and in 
order that the business may functipn properly you must perform 
your part correctly. Of course, you will make some mistakes— 
every one does—but every effort should be made to reduce your 
errors to a minimum. This you can do in two ways: first, by 
being alert every moment; and second, by displaying proper team¬ 
work. If you have played baseball or basketball you know what 
teamwork is. You know how important it is that you work with 
your team-mates. You may be an excellent forward in basket- 


TEAMWORK IN BUSINESS 


IOI 


ball; you may be a star. But unless you cooperate properly with 
the other members of your team you will throw few goals. In 
basketball or baseball or any similar game it is the combined effort 
that counts. 

So in business, teamwork is a most important factor. Without 
it no business can succeed. Every player on the business team 
must not only take proper care of the duties assigned to him, but 
he must cooperate fully with the other workers and have at heart 
the general results to be attained. The relations then of one em¬ 
ployee to another must be as friendly, as cordial, and as unselfish 
as the relations between players on a basketball team. Petty 
squabbles and bickerings are entirely out of order. Selfishness 
and jealousy must find no place. In business as in baseball each 
employee has his prescribed duties, his particular position to hold 
down. But just as in baseball, many situations arise which re¬ 
quire one to go out of his territory, to do more than his ordinary 
share. In a baseball game oftentimes two or three players go 
after the same ball. The one arriving first gets it. There should 
be exactly that same spirit in an office. When something new 
comes up there should be two or three employees eager to attend 
to it. Sad to say, however, it isn’t always that way. “I’m not 
going to do that—that’s your job. Think I’m going to do it?’’ is 
often heard. Would you call that teamwork? The business 
where many expressions of that kind can be heard is certainly 
not a promising one. There is no idea of cooperation. There is 
no spirit . 

What is meant by “spirit”? How can you tell when a baseball 
team has spirit? And how can one tell upon entering a place of 
business whether the employees have real spirit? Let me answer 
this last question; this is how you can tell: 

1. Every one will be busy. There will be a businesslike air 
about the place. 

2. Every one will seem happy—it will be a cheerful place. 

3. Some one will quickly look after your wants. There will be 
no argument as to whose duty it is. 


102 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


4. A half dozen curious faces will not stare at you as you pass 
through the office. 

5. Every one with whom you have dealings will be courteous. 

6. Every employee will seem eager to do his share of the work 
—and more. 

There is a slang expression which describes an evil and ruinous 
habit practiced by many employees, particularly in large concerns. 
It is “passing the buck.” Reduced to simple terms it means: 
getting some one else to do it. An employee is confronted with 
some unusual problem or task. Not caring to bother with the 
matter, he finds some excuse to send it to some one else who in 
turn passes it on to a third person, and so on. Make up your 
mind now that when you start to work you will not be a “buck 
passer.” Don’t be afraid to take care of any matter that comes 
up if you are at all capable of it, and if you are not positive that 
the task belongs to some other person in the organization. 

Your relations with your fellow employees should be as cordial 
and as pleasant as you can make them. Demonstrate at all times 
fairmindedness, the spirit of helpfulness, unselfishness, willingness 
to take orders—earnestness in executing them. Demonstrate 
teamwork and spirit. 

Note to young men: Be particularly careful about your atti¬ 
tude toward girls in the office. There are many hints and sug¬ 
gestions that could be given you on this point, but perhaps all of 
them can be expressed in one sentence: Always act the gentleman. 

Note to girls: Be natural and unaffected in your attitude to¬ 
wards men and others in your place of business. Be a lady of 
course, but also be businesslike. You will often find that men 
of the right kind will be anxious to assist you, but do not be too 
ready to accept such assistance. Nowadays men and Vomen in 
business are on a par. Both are supposed to shoulder the respon¬ 
sibilities imposed upon them. There is a certain amount of 
gallantry in business, but do not appear anxious to receive special 
treatment. Show your willingness and ability to “stand on your 
own feet.” 


THE LITTLE THINGS 


103 


The Little Things 

No one can hope to reach the point where he can do big things 
who has not since the earliest stages of his business career learned 
to be faithful in the little things. The man or woman who can 
learn to do the little things is the one who will be most valued in 
the business world. Business men are looking for people who can 
attend to the little ordinary things, the details—who will perform 
them with as much care and attention as they would the biggest 
job given them to do. 

Office managers are particularly anxious to get hold of junior 
clerks who can take care of the details. In every office there are 
a thousand and one little things to be done. Moreover, each office 
has its peculiar details—little tasks which would probably not have 
to be attended to in another place. 

There are some constant daily tasks, and the thing to do is to 
cultivate the habit of doing them promptly, faithfully and thor¬ 
oughly, and do not, just because they are small everyday things, 
allow yourself to get slipshod about them. But there are many 
little jobs that are not matters of routine, but may come up at any 
time unexpectedly. They are the office uncertainties. New ones 
are constantly bobbing up and old ones are disappearing. You 
cannot tell when to expect them, and there is no set rule as to how 
to attend to them. 

There are three principles, however, with respect to doing the 
httle things that should be kept in mind: 

First, Keep on the alert. 

Second, Use good judgment. 

Third, Learn to act quickly. 

The junior clerk who is half asleep will never see many things 
that must be done. The hundreds of little, but none the less im¬ 
portant, things will go unattended to in his office. He will be con¬ 
stantly following directions. His boss will continually be irri¬ 
tated at him. He may perform well his fixed tasks, but unless 
he does the odd jobs without being told he will be a failure in his 
work. 


104 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


When the alert clerk discovers or notices the little tasks, some 
of which may be performed by a single movement or word, he 
must be able to think quickly and to use good judgment in order 
to do just the right thing. If he is accustomed to being told when 
to do and how to do he will be helpless when many of the little 
emergencies arise. If he is unaccustomed to thinking quickly, if 
he has had no practice in quickly executing his thoughts, he will 
be lost when the unexpected happens. 

Then, again, every regular task is made up of a number of 
little tasks, some of which may be performed and some left un¬ 
done. Of course, the job is not well done unless every part of 
it is attended to promptly. 

Recently the writer had a boy doing some addressing for him. 
This task consisted of the following: 

First, the actual addressing. 

Second, the checking off of the names when addressed and indi¬ 
cating the place where he left off when he was interrupted. 

Third, the stacking of the envelopes right side up. 

Fourth, taking the materials to the right place when the job 
was finished. 

About all this boy did was the addressing. He did not check 
the names, the envelopes were all mixed up, the list was not put 
back in its proper place, and his pen and ink were left where he 
got through with them. An example of the alert boy is one who, 
coming along and seeing those things out of place, would quickly, 
and without being told, dispose of them properly. 

Some examples of the little things to be done are: Picking up 
paper from the floor or anything that might be dropped, shutting 
the door if left open by a visitor, and sharpening the boss’s pencil 
if it needs it. One day the writer was in an office talking to the 
boss. His ’phone rang. When he reached for it, it could be seen 
than the cord had caught on the back of the desk so that he could 
not get the ’phone close enough. The office boy, who happened to 
be standing near, on the alert, jumped over to the desk and 
quickly released the cord. Then a whiff of wind blew some papers 
off the top of the desk. Like a flash he was after them. Then, 


THE LITTLE THINGS 


105 


seeing that there was too much of a draft in the room, he asked 
if it would not be a good idea to close the transom. This boy was 
awake. He saw things. No one had to tell him. He was able 
to do the right thing when the unexpected happened. He studied 
to make himself useful. That boy did not limit his energies to 
prescribed duties. He did what was expected of him. But he 
did more—he seized every opportunity to be of service, and he 
used his head. 


CHAPTER X 


Professional Bookkeeping 

Keeping the accounts of any regularly established business is a 
profession in itself, and requires special professional training. It 
is often very complicated. For this reason many small retail 
stores do not keep any regular set of books. They content them¬ 
selves with the simple cash account, invoices, and statements. To 
keep a regular set of books necessitates hiring a professional 
bookkeeper, and the small business man feels he cannot afford 
this. He is wrong, however. Some years ago the National Im¬ 
plement and Vehicle Association made an investigation of the 
30,000 retail dealers in vehicles and implements. These were for 
the most part farmers who had made money in farming and when 
they moved into town went into the business of selling agricultural 
implements, wagons, etc., to their farmer friends. It appeared 
that 22 per cent of these went into bankruptcy every year, so 
that on the average in less than five years every one of the 30,000 
had failed in business and had been replaced by some one else, 
who in less than five years more would also become bankrupt. 

The reason was that most of these dealers kept no regular books 
and did not know precisely what it cost them to do business. One 
would cut the prices on certain implements so as to get the 
business away from competitors, and then the competitors would 
cut it because they would say, “If that other fellow can afford to 
sell at that price I can.” They were thinking only of what they 
paid the manufacturer for the implement, and what they got for 
it, forgetting to figure up their “overhead expenses,” such as rent, 
taxes, insurance, loss on bad accounts, and even their own labor 
in buying the implements and in talking to people so as to make 
the sales. 

106 


PROFESSIONAL BOOKKEEPING 


107 

The Association introduced to these dealers a simple system of 
keeping accurate accounts, so that all those extra expenses were 
properly entered, and in a short time the average number of 
failures among the 30,000 was only 15 per cent instead of 22 per 
cent. That meant that each year only 4,500 dealers went into 
bankruptcy instead of 6,600, or 2,100 were kept from failing 
through being told how to keep their accounts so they would know 
what it really cost them to sell implements, including all those 
special and extra expenses they had been overlooking. 

Importance of Understanding a Set of Books 

As we have said, a regular professional training in bookkeeping 
is necessary in order to keep a set of books. But some little knowl¬ 
edge of bookkeeping is necessary to know how to even read the 
records in a set of books and kfiow what they mean. Every per¬ 
son in business should at least be able to look up accounts in books 
and see what they indicate. This can best be learned by going to 
see a regular set of books in a regular business house. 

The primary object of bookkeeping is to enable a business man 
to tell at any time whether he is making money or losing money, 
and whether he owns more than he owes. In addition, it enables 
him to tell which departments are making money and which are 
losing. To illustrate: Take two grain dealers handling oats, hay, 
flour, and feed, and both making a profit on their business. The 
first man does not keep books but knows in a general way he is 
making money because he has more money at the end of the year 
than when he started. The second man keeps books which show 
what he pays for oats, hay, flour, and feed, what it costs him to 
handle each item, and what each has sold for. On looking over 
his books the second man finds that he is making a good profit on 
both hay and oats but is losing money on flour and feed. So he 
raises his price on flour and feed and increases his profits. The 
first man, however, keeps right on dealing in all four materials 
until a time comes when he has less money on hand than when he 
started, and is unable to tell how it happened. 


io8 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


The building, the property, the stock of goods, accounts re¬ 
ceivable, and cash on hand or in the bank are a business man’s 
Assets. Money owed by him is a Liability. The excess of his 
Assets over his Liabilities is his Worth. 

A set of books is made up of accounts. What is meant by an 
account may be illustrated by the following: Suppose you are 
running a soda-water stand and you sell soda to John Smith on 
credit. Open a ledger account with him on your books: 

John Smith 

Dr. (Debit) Cr. (Credit) 


1/21/18—To 5 Bot. Soda.. 25 1/22/18—By Cash.15 

1/23/18—By Cash.10 


You have sold him five bottles f$r twenty-five cents, and charged 
him twenty-five cents on his account, or, as it is called, made a 
debit entry. On the next day he paid you fifteen cents. This 
payment was “on account,” for it did not pay the account in full, 
and the receipt given him should read, “Received on account 
fifteen cents from John Smith; balance due, ten cents.” Then 
his account was credited with the fifteen-cent payment, or a credit 
entry was made. The next day he came along and paid the bal¬ 
ance, the receipt this time reading “Paid in Full,” and another 
credit entry was made on his account. As the total debits and the 
total credits amount to twenty-five cents, the account is said to 
balance. 

Besides the individual accounts like the above, every firm has a 
number of other accounts, such as Cash or Bank Account, Ex¬ 
pense Account, Property Account, Profit and Loss Account, Bills 
Receivable Account, Sales Accounts, Merchandise Account, and 

4 

others, depending upon the nature of the business and the par¬ 
ticular method of keeping books. 

Bank Account: When money is deposited in the bank, on 
the firm’s books the bank is charged or debited with the amount of 





PROFESSIONAL BOOKKEEPING 


109 

the deposit. When checks are written by the firm the bank is 
credited with the amount of the check. 

First National Bank 

Dr. Cr. 

1/21/15 By deposit. .$1500.00 1/22/15—By check to J. Smith. .$500.00 

By means of the bank account a firm can tell each day just how 
much money it has in the bank. If the firm should write a check 
for more money than it has in the bank, the amount in excess of 
what is in the bank is called an overdraft. This overdraft must 
be made good immediately. 

Expense Account: All money paid out for salaries, etc., 
is charged to expense. The purpose of this account is to enable 
the firm to tell at any time during the month how its expenses are 
running. 

Property Account : The property account is for the purpose 
of showing on the books the amount of property owned by the 
firm. All money spent for improvements on this property is 
charged to this account. 

We will not take time to explain the other accounts, but it is 
hoped that you will be able to follow up this bit of bookkeeping 
knowledge and become well grounded in the principles. There is 
one fundamental principle, however, which should be mentioned, 
and that is this: Every time a credit entry is made a correspond¬ 
ing debit entry is made in some other account. This shows the 
meaning of “double entry.” Every item is entered twice. A 
simple example of how this works is the following: Suppose a 
produce man buys a lot of turkeys from a farmer or a commission 
man and gives him a check for $100. From what we have already 
seen the produce man will credit the bank with $100 (the amount 
of the check) on its account, whereas the Merchandise or Stock 
account will be debited with the $100. 

Thus the total of all the debit columns and the total of all the 
credit columns of the various accounts should be the same, or 
equal. The itemized statement of the total debits and credits is 



no 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


called the Trial Balance. If the total debits and total credits are 
not the same, the books are said to be out of balance, that is to say, 
an error in putting the credits or charges in the various accounts 
(called posting) has been made. 

Assignment for Examining a Set of Books 

Examine the set of books of a business house (not too large) 
which carries credit accounts. Some businesses sell only for cash 
and their bookkeeping is simpler. For the purposes of this 
assignment we need a wholesale, manufacturing, or large retail 
business where a regular set of books is kept, with credit accounts. 

Merely going into a counting-room and looking at a set of 
books will not do much good. Even hearing the bookkeeper 
explain the books will not do much good, because the ordinary 
person will not understand the explanations. It will be necessary 
to look for certain special things, and then write down in one’s 
notebook what one sees. The following questions should be 
written in the notebook, and space should be left after each question 
in which to write the answers. 

1. Look at the billhead of the firm and see just how it reads. 
The wording on bills is slightly different with different firms. See 
a bill actually made out and be prepared to explain what each entry 
on the bill means. 

2. Where did the bookkeeper get the information from which 
he made out the invoice? Is the invoice made out after the order 
has been filled and the goods shipped, at the same time, or before ? 

3. Observe how the bookkeeper posts the charge contained in 
the invoice into the ledger. What sort of book is the ledger? In 
what second account is the item posted? Does the house have a 
special sales ledger different from the general ledger? 

4. At the end of the month all the invoice entries will be copied 
out of the ledger on a statement blank, which will be sent to the 
customer. Look at the printed form of statement used by the 
firm and see just what the wording is, and just how the entries are 
made. This statement is sent to the customer and he usually 
returns it with his check. 


KEEPING IN GOOD SPIRITS 


hi 


5. When the visit is made checks will be coming in which are to 
be credited to charge accounts of customers, and also entered in 
the cash account or bank account. When such a check comes, just 
how is it entered in two different accounts ? 

6. W hen money is wanted to pay small office expenses, how 
does the cashier get it? If it is necessary to obtain money from 
the bank, how is the check made out and who signs it? In what 
two places in the ledger are these expense items entered ? 

7. Does the firm keep a day-book? If so, what is it for? Does 
it keep a journal? If so, what is it for? What other books does 
it keep, and what is their purpose ? 


TALK No. 10 by the Morale Officer on 
Keeping in Good Spirits 

There is nothing that will help you more than keeping in good 
spirits. And there is nothing that will be a greater hindrance than 
getting “down in the mouth.” The world needs cheerful people— 
it has no place for the gloomy. People love bright, cheerful, happy 
men and women; they have no use for the gloomy, pessimistic, 
unhappy kind. 

Happiness is a habit—cultivate it. People who cultivate happi¬ 
ness are happy under even very disheartening circumstances. Amid 
the worst of troubles they smile. And the smile gives strength, and 
with renewed strength they conquer. On the other hand, moody, 
gloomy people are unhappy under the most pleasing circumstances. 
And when troubles come they are so overcome with their gloomi¬ 
ness that they have not strength to fight. 

Every one should, of course, be concerned about his future to 
the extent that he should give much serious thought to it. But he 
should ever keep his good spirits on top. He should go into the 
fight with hope high, and never pause to worry. If worry did 
good, it would be a good plan for people to quit work and worry 
a while. There is nothing that interferes more with one’s progress 
than loss of punch that comes through worrying. 


112 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


When one is out of work he is inclined to worry. Now, he 
should of course be very anxious to get a place, but if he gets 
down in the mouth he merely lessens his chances. Worrying takes 
time, it saps energy, it interferes with thought, and it prevents 
intelligent action. A person out of a job needs every bit of energy 
that’s in him, he needs to be at his best in order that he may act 
intelligently. 

Sometimes a good worker unconsciously prolongs his idleness 
by losing hope. If he has been out of a job some time, so much 
the more reason why he should keep his head. Perhaps the folks 
at home are impatient with him; so much the more reason why he 
should continue to bend every energy toward getting a place. The 
individual wdth spunk will appear happy and cheerful in the face 
of every circumstance. The weak ones, the quitters, will break 
down and whine at an early date. 

The one best way to stay cheerful and hopeful is to keep busy. 
The unhappy people of this world are the idle ones. It takes time 
to worry. Keep so busy looking for a job, or preparing yourself 
to hold one, or holding one when you get one, that no time is left 
for gloomy thoughts. 

Stay cheerful, no matter what happens. 


CHAPTER XI 


Adding Machine Operation 

Every person intending to pursue a business career should learn 
to operate an adding machine. It has come to be an essential part 
of the equipment of every modern office. 

A common failing of persons learning to operate an adding 
machine is that they minimize or forget the importance of knowing 
the various parts of the machine thoroughly. Young people, 
especially, are prone to press the buttons and pull the lever with 
almost entire forgetfulness of their uses and of the great care 
that should be given the machine. 

Do not allow yourself to do careless work. Go slowly at first, 
but carefully, making sure that you understand each step and that 
your work is accurate. Do not become so absorbed in your work 
that you forget to keep an eye on the different parts of the machine, 
as it is important that you know at all times whether or not they 
are working smoothly. For example, sometimes the carriage or 
the paper feed may not be functioning properly. Unless you 
become aware of this immediately, valuable time may be needlessly 
wasted. 


Keyboard 

The first row of keys at the right of the keyboard runs from 
i to 9 cents, the second from io to 90 cents, the third 1 to 9 dollars, 
the fourth row 10 to 90 dollars, etc. 

Clearing the Machine 

Before beginning to list items the operator should always be sure 
that the machine is clear, that is, have no numbers added in the 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


114 

machine. To make sure of this, draw the operating handle for¬ 
ward, remove the hand, and allow it to return, then depress the 
button marked “total” and hold it down until the handle has started 


Eliminating 
or “Non-Add” key 


Transfer Total 
Button 


Sub-Total Button 
For Both Counters 


Duplex Control 
Lever 


General Total for 
Both Counters 


Paper Carriage 


Separate Column 
Correction Button: 



Operating 

Handle 


General Correction 
or “Error” key 


Repeat Button 


i*—Keyboard of a No. 9 or No. 2201 Burroughs Duplex Adding 
and Listing Machine, showing the principal features. 


forward again. If the machine is empty, or clear, a star will be 
printed. Never begin adding until the machine has been cleared 
in this manner. 

Printing or Listing Items 

The operation of listing items is very simple and can be learned 
in a few minutes. It is necessary only to depress the keys repre- 









































ADDING MACHINE OPERATION 


ii5 

senting the figures in the items desired and pull the handle. For 
instance, in order to list and add $34.50, depress the “3” in the tens 
of dollars column, the “4” in the units of dollars, the “5” in the 
tens of cents column. Then pull the handle and release it and 
$34.50 will show on the dials at the front of the machine and will 
also be printed on the paper. As. will be seen from the above, it is 
not necessary to press a key for the zero or cipher, as this is 
automatically printed. In listing $100.00 the “1” in the hundreds 
column of dollars (fifth key from the right) is the only key that 
need be pressed. 


Correcting Errors 

Should the operator press the wrong button before operating 
the handle he can easily correct the mistake. If only one number 
is wrong, press the red button at the top of the row and the 
depressed key will be released. If a number of keys are wrong use 
the “Error” key on the right, since this will release all keys 
depressed. 


Fingering the Keyboard 


It is very important that from the start the proper method of 
fingering be used. The best method is that known as “working 
up the keyboard.” 

This means that the keys of the lowest denominations should be 
depressed first, no matter in what column they happen to be, and 
the highest number last. Thus, in placing the number 79413 in the 
machine the operator should first depress the “1” in “Tens” 
column, then the “3” in “Units” column, “4” in “Hundreds” 
column, “7” in the “Ten-Thousands” column and last the “9” in 
“Thousands” column. 

While this method may confuse the student a little at first, he 
will soon acquire the habit of reading the numbers in the order 
described. He will be repaid for the time spent in learning this 


ii6 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


method of fingering, as it will materially increase his speed. This 
is because he is constantly working toward the operating handle. 

Learn to use more than one finger. (See illustration.) You will, 
of course, find your fingers stiff at first, and you will have diffi- 



Fig. 2 .—The forefinger is on 3 in third column, the next finger on 4 
in second, and the third finger is on 5 in the first column. 
Thus each finger works in one column up and down. 


culty in overcoming the tendency to use only the forefinger. 
Persistence will win. Be patient, and persistent, and in the long 
run you will be repaid for your pains. 

To Shift Paper Carriage 

The carriage may be shifted back and forth by compressing the 
stop bar release lever and moving the carriage to the desired posi¬ 
tion. (See Fig. 3.) 


Pressure Roll Release 

To straighten the paper lift up the pressure roll release lever 
with the right hand and adjust with the left. (See Fig. 4.) 





ADDING MACHINE OPERATION 


1 17 


Adjusting the Paper Feed 

For varying the feed of the paper, a knurled knob on the right 
end of the carriage may be moved to four different positions. When 




Fig. 3.—Finger on Stop- 
Bar Release Lever 


Fig. 4.—Straightening the Paper. The forefinger is on 
the Pressure Roll Lever. 


the knob is in the first position, that nearest the operator, marked 
“o,” the paper does not space on operation of the machine, so 



Fig. 5.—The pencil points to the 
Paper Feed Adjusting Knob. 


that in this position items may be listed and added in several 
columns on the same horizontal line. This is convenient where it 
is desired to cross-add and print the total all on one line. When 
the knob is in position marked “1,” the machine will single space, 
when in position “2,” double space, etc. 





















n8 FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 

To Print the Total 

When it is desired to take the total of the figures listed, first 
pull the handle to make a space, then depress the total key and 
pull the handle again. The accumulated total will be printed on 
the paper, together with the star, which marks it as a total. The 
total key cannot be depressed until the spacing stroke has been 
taken. 

To Print Sub-Total 

If it is desired to print the total of certain figures that have been 
listed and continue adding other figures to this total, a sub-total 
may be taken by pressing the key marked “ST.” When the 
remaining figures have been listed, the grand total is taken by 
means of the regular total key. A sub-total is always indicated by 
an “S” following the figures. 

The Repeat Button 

Should the operator, in adding a list of figures, come to a figure 
like $24.66 occurring several times in succession, he can, by 
pressing down the Repeat Key and pulling the lever, repeat the 
number as many times as desired. When this operation is com¬ 
pleted the Repeat Key must be released and the Error Key 
depressed in order to release the keys which have been thus 
repeated. 

The Non-Add Key 

If it is desired only to list a number and not include it in the 
figures to be added, press down the Non-Add Key before pulling 
the lever. 

Adding Without Printing 

To add without printing, tilt the carriage back. This automati¬ 
cally throws out the paper feed so that there is no waste of paper. 

Cross Tabulating 

Adjust the stops on the adjustable stop-bar to secure columns 
of the desired width. See that the machine is clear and adjust 
the spacing mechanism so that the machine will not space, i. e., 


ADDING MACHINE OPERATION 


119 

at position “O.” Shift the carriage to the first column position, 
print the clear signal, turn the platen forward one space, and list 
first item. Now shift to second column position and list the sec¬ 
ond item. 

Continue in this manner until the last or total column is reached, 
then pull the handle for the usual spacing stroke and take a total 
in the usual manner. Again shift the carriage to first position, 
turn the platen for the desired spacing and proceed as before. 

After all items are listed, throw back the carriage and add 
(without listing) the amounts in the total column, restore the car¬ 
riage to printing position and take a total. The result will be 
the grand total. To prove the work add the items of each column 
as you did the total column, printing the total at the bottom of 
each column. Now add the totals of the several columns and 
the result should agree with the grand total as shown in the total 
column. 

Observe that the vertical columns have to be run through the 
machine a second time for totaling. 

The cross tabulating feature is used for making up comparative 
statements, pay rolls, and statistical reports of all kinds. 

Use of Hands 

The right hand depresses the keys and pulls the lever. The left 
hand should be used to indicate the next figure to be added. In 
adding a long list of figures it would be quite difficult to keep your 
place unless your left hand fulfilled this function. 

Practice on the Adding Machine 

Students should have a certain amount of actual practice on an 
adding machine. The Burroughs and Comptometer companies 
have a supply of simple adding machines which merely add but do 
not print, which will be satisfactory for practice purposes, and 
students may arrange to go to their training rooms and get this 
practice. Or the use of machines in business offices may be 
obtained by special permission. 

First, each dififerent operation described in the book should be 
observed on an actual machine. 

Next, go through the figures listed in Exercise 1. The practice 


120 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


material in the remaining exercises may be used in case there 
is more time and opportunity for practice than will be possible in 
most cases. 

If the answer obtained on the machine is not the same as that 
shown in the book, the operation should be repeated until the 
correct answer is obtained. 

It is not important that any attention should be given to the 
special operations of an adding machine, such as multiplying, 
subtracting, and dividing. Those are of interest only after the 
simple operation of adding is fully mastered. 


Practice Exercise No. i 

Take the following exercise. Be absolutely accurate. If your 
totals fail to agree with those given (shown by star), repeat the 
operation. (Paste your work in your notebook.) 


* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

I 

.21 

11.22 

12.21 

1 23456.78 

2 

•32 

22.33 

23.32 

234,567-89 

3 

•43 

3344 

3443 

345,678.90 

4 

•54 

44-55 

45-54 

456,789.00 

5 

•65 

55-66 

56.65 

567,890.00 

6 

.76 

66.77 

67.76 

678,900.00 

7 

.87 

77.88 

78.87 

789,000.00 

8 

.98 

88.99 

89.98 

890,000.00 

9 

.19 

99.11 

91 .II 

900,000.00 

• 45 * 

4 - 95 * 

499 - 95 * 

499.87* 

4,986,282.57* 



ADDING MACHINE OPERATION 


121 


* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

12 

3-21 

22.11 

12.31 

876,543.21 

• 2 3 

4-32 

33-22 

23.42 

9 8 7,654-32 

•34 

5-43 

44-33 

34-53 

98,765.43 

•45 

6-54 

55-44 

45-64 

9,876.65 

•56 

7-65 

66.55 

56.75 

987.65 

.67 

8.76 

77.66 

67.86 

98.76 

.78 

9.87 

88.77 

78.97 

9.87 

.89 

I.98 

99.88 

89.I8 

.98 

.91 

2.19 

11.99 

92.19 

9 

4 - 95 * 

49.95* 

499-95* 

500.85* 

1,973,936-85* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

1.23 

43-21 

112.33 

21.12 

1,122.33 

2.34 

54-32 

223.44 

32.23 

2,233.44 

345 

6543 

334-55 

43-34 

3,314-55 

4-56 

76.54 

445.66 

54-45 

4,455-66 

5-67 

98.76 

556-77 

76.67 

5,566.77 

6.78 

19.87 

778.99 

87.78 

m 

6,677.88 

8.91 

• 21.98 

889.II 

98.89 

8,899.11 

9.12 

32.19 

991.22 

19.91 

9,911.22 

42.06* 

412.30* 

4,332-07* 

434-39* 

42,210.96* 



122 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

12.34 

543-21 

10.02 

12.00 

12,233.44 

2345 

654-32 

20.03 

23.OO 

23.344-55 

34.56 

76543 

3O.O4 

34.OO 

34455-66 

45.67 

876.54 

40.05 

45.00 

45,566.77 

56.78 

987.65 

50.06 

56.OO 

56,677.88 

67.89 

219.87 

60.07 

78.OO 

67,788.99 

78.91 

321.98 

80.09 

89.OO 

78,891.22 

91.23 

432.19 

90.01 

91.00 

9L122.33 

410.83* 

4,801.19* 

380.37* 

428.OO* 

410,080.84* 


Practice Exercise No. 2 



Straight Listing and Adding 


Make 

the following additions. Watch your fingering. Follow 

the directions already given. Paste 

your work in your notebook. 

5| 

K * 

* 

* 

* 

56.46 

77.86 

868.67 

31347 

89,767.49 

34^4 

99.88 

676.34 

745-74 

67,545-66 

78./8 

24.35 

353-56 

565-67 

54,232.25 

4545 

46.68 

667.65 

343-24 

65,056.06 

34.23 

58.69 

454.68 

464-53 

70,500.07 

89.89 

2323 

456.43 

756.56 

65,350.03 

68.46 

44-33 

634-34 

123.12 

46,060.79 

23.56 

77-55 

867.56 

232.35 

76,050.07 

34-12 

35 36 

745-34 

544-56 

65,405.98 

5746 

57-67 

367.89 

333-45 

87,660.67 

35-68 

99-77 

234-56 

453-42 

9L9I9-I9 

14-13 

n-33 

323-89 

674-53 

I 9, I 9 I -9 I 

5645 

26.48 

567.89 

246.35 

64,336.05 


(Columns are continued on opposite page.) 



ADDING MACHINE OPERATION 


123 


44.34 

38.59 

434-12 

794.51 

75,000.76 

77.56 

65.86 

16745 

545.67 

60,000.06 

33*22 

47-24 

245-34 

645.34 

58,54773 

11.44 

53.65 

334-23 

654.23 

79,863.47 

33-77 

46.76 

489.89 

342.45 

63,120.61 

66.88 

45.65 

535-35 

65578 

29,757-65 

46.46 

2343 

635.13 

74245 

53,231-38 

57- I 3 

67.44 

746.23 

535-35 

87,674.65 

68.78 

55-33 

143.34 

342.35 

96,764.63 

1,068.49* 

1,127.13* 

10,949.88* 

11,055.12* 

1,467,° 37 - 


* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

34.23 

656.76 

1,231.34 

324.66 

50,605.07 

78.56 

445-44 

2,33346 

65O.68 

30,400.72 

34-79 

545-79 

3,225.67 

760.55 

20,704.09 

5645 

751-24 

4,434-58 

405.08 

80,020.06 

24.23 

336.79 

5,212.35 

76 o .54 

86,006.78 

64.24 

655-76 

6,567.67 

456.54 

40,450.45 

3243 

466.35 

7 , 657 v 9 

34344 

54,023.07 

88.76 

336-78 

8,655.68 

705.07 

76,045.04 

46.55 

876.44 

9,54545 

466.07 

i 3 ,° 3°. 2 3 

6543 

45547 

6 , 454-55 

317-89 

42,032.30 

77.66 

34345 

9 , 866.44 

750.56 

50,506.07 

34.23 

456.34 

7,867.56 

455-60 

65,070.08 

78.78 

123.12 

4 , 534-23 

606.04 

70,000.08 

77.66 

223.21 

1,212.45 

333-02 

40 , 530.40 

24.II 

334-56 

4 , 332.34 

667.07 

23,30440 

35-45 

545-66 

7 , 554-55 

908.60 

64,045.08 

67-57 

64345 

4,564-37 

303.32 

70,550.06 

78.78 

989.58 

8,784.58 

205.50 

58,066.77 

34-34 

556.57 

6,767-34 

678.47 

67,605.06 

35-12 

232.34 

3434-56 

453.04 

56,024.03 

43-54 

53543 

6,767.77 

635.07 

35,045.02 

1,112.91* 

10,510.63* 

121,00473* 

11,186.81* 

1,094,064.86* 


124 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


Practice Exercise No. 3 

# 

Securing and Carrying Forward a Sub-total 

(Sub-totals indicated by s, totals by *) 


* 

2,172.37s 

2,927.02s 

34.56 

344 

2343 

45.44 

34-56 

2.34 

345.67 

45-33 

345 

223.43 

23- 2 3 

4-34 

34.56 

76.78 

543 

5-43 

8.78 

34.06 

343 - 3 2 

7.67 

6.07 

46.65 

16.65 

70.65 

33-22 

45-45 

56.08 

56.87 

43-54 

7.09 

67.77 

4-34 

1.23 

9-77 

5-43 

2.12 

7.88 

8.96 

3-35 

70.50 

7.78 

45.00 

3-40 

8.76 

3340 

40.30 

34-45 

2.04 

23.23 

45-56 

6.54 

200.00 

13-32 

35-68 

12.23 

I9.89 

50.09 

23.12 

19.19 

6.56 

42.25 

1*54 

5-77 

345 

7-32 

3345 

4-34 

5.00 

45.66 

10.32 

34.00 

6.78 

100.00 

3-46 

2-34 

212.00 

5-56 

.24 

23.00 

34-67 

445 

3.23 

64-43 

55-34 

6544 

30-56 

33-55 

45-56 

40.00 

4-56 

3543 

55-00 

45.66 


2,172.37s 2,927.02s 3,563.77 s 


3.563.77s 

4,178.64s 

5,630.72S 

3-34 

34-53 

2343 

245 

23.00 

3444 

23-23 

34-30 

45-65 

30.78 

3-45 

35-35 

67.69 

44.00 

76.23 

6.98 

5-44 

1.25 

5-67 

4.67 

23.23 

5-65 

45-56 

I I I .OO 

9.81 

23-45 

21.24 

70.32 

43-44 

33-56 

10.99 

34-33 

5-45 

23.46 

25.66 

44.67 

5-65 

323.00 

23-45 

•57 

20.40 

56.67 

6.76 

2.36 

34-34 

4.54 

43-56 

5-67 

5343 

56-56 

67.67 

45-56 

45-79 

8.07 

34-34 

7.67 

78.99 

3-55 

67.OO 

10.97 

5-64 

56.40 

i -75 

4-56 

4-56 

45-47 

5-45 

45-34 

3-55 

4-57 

3-56 

22.35 

5-67 

32.00 

56.78 

5-67 

56.67 

8.77 

6.87 

65.6O 

34-56 

3.66 

75-56 

55-34 

13-57 

44.66 

20.23 

120.00 

23.00 

125.00 

24-54 

56-56 

5440 

4,178.64s 

5,630.72s 

6,800.15* 


ADDING MACHINE OPERATION 

Practice Exercise No. 4 
Arranging the Spacing 




SINGLE 

SPACING 



* 

4.50 

12.20 

3.20 

25-54 

4.65 

6.3O 

56.39s 

5.00 

4-35 

33 -6o 
6.00 
2-37 
•75 

108.46s 

4.00 

125.00 

2.32 

1.00 
5.66 
8.89 

255 - 33 S 

33-66 

5-34 

40.00 

1.21 

132.34 

3.05 

470.93s 

22.50 

3.27 

5.86 

322.25 

3.10 

.98 

828.89s 

22.50 

110.00 
1.67 

7-50 

5.00 

43-33 

56 . 39 S 

108.46s 

255 . 33 S 

470.93s 

828.89s 

1,018.89* 



DOUBLE 

SPACING 



* 

61.25s 

1,346.63s 

1,635.27s 

1,704.16s 

3,929.43s 

33-56 

5-45 

34-43 

35.30 

2,215.50 

•75 

5.00 

234.33 

5-56 

3.21 

4.00 

5.60 

2.24 

1,000.00 

6.44 

22.60 

2.21 

33-23 

20.45 

45.60 

242.21 

7.78 

3-56 

24.20 

61.25s 

1.346.63s 

1,635.27s 

1,704.16s 

3,929.43s 

3,993.21* 



TRIPLE SPACING 



* 

28.35s 

280.38s 

1,768.77s 

1,956.08s 

4,461.64s 

5.00 

245.46 

35-39 

110.77 

5-56 

42.78 

23-35 

6-57 

1 , 453-00 

76.54 

2,500.00 

L 76544 

28.35s 

28O.38S 

1,768.77s 

1,956.08s 

4,461.64s 

6,269.86* 


126 FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 

Practice Exercise No. 5 


Cross Tabulating 


No. 

Mon. 

Tues. 

Wed. 

Thurs. 

Fri. 

Sat. 


it 

2-45 

2.56 

2.60 

2.65 

2.50 

2.55 

15-31* 

2f 

3.20 

3.20 

3.00 

2.50 

3.00 

2.60 

17.50* 

31 

2.50 

2.60 

2-75 

2.80 

2.80 

2.90 

16.35* 

41 

3.22 

3.28 

3.00 

3 - 10 

3.00 

2-95 

18.55* 

St 

2-34 

2.45 

2.50 

2.60 

2.56 

2.60 

15-05* 

6t 

343 

3-50 

3-50 

3.60 

3-50 

3-35 

20.88* 

71 

4.20 

4.00 

4.10 

4.00 

3-98 

4.10 

24.38* 

8t 

3-56 

2.50 

2.40 

2.50 

2.50 

2.60 

16.06* 

91 

3-23 

3.00 

3.10 

3.00 

3.20 

3-30 

18.83* 

.10 f 

1.90 

2.00 

2.00 

2.10 

1.90 

2.00 

11.90* 

.111 

i -95 

2.00 

1.90 

2.00 

2.10 

2.00 

n.95* 

.12 f 

2.67 

3-90 

4.00 

3.60 

4.00 

3-90 

22.07* 

.131 

3.22 

3.00 

3.20 

3.00 

3-40 

3-50 

19.32* 

• 141 

2.44 

2.50 

2.70 

2-75 

2.80 

2.75 

15.94* 

•151 

3.00 

3.10 

3.00 

2.88 

2.80 

2.88 

17.66* 

.l6 f 

2.50 

2.50 

2.25 

2.25 

2.30 

2.35 

14.15* 

•171 

2.50 

2.65 

2.50 

2.50 

2.65 

3.00 

15.80* 

.l8 f 

3.00 

3.10 

3.00 

2.78 

2.90 

3.00 

17.78* 

•i9t 

3.20 

3.00 

3.20 

3.00 

3- 10 

3.00 

18.50* 

.20 f 

3.20 

3.20 

3.00 

3.20 

3-30 

3.20 

19.10* 

.21 f 

2.00 

2.20 

2.40 

2.10 

2.50 

2.60 

13.80* 

.22 t 

2.00 

2-35 

2.40 

2-35 

2.35 

2.50 

13-95* 

•231 

2.50 

2.60 

2.50 

2.25 

2.40 

2.50 

14.75* 

•241 

3-35 

3-30 

3 - IQ 

3.00 

3.20 

3 - 10 

19.05* 

•251 

4.00 

3.60 

3-40 

3-50 

3-50 

3-50 

21.50* 

.26 f 

1.88 

1.90 

2.00 

1.80 

2.20 

2.00 

11.78* 

.27 f 

1.90 

2.00 

2.10 

1.90 

1.90 

2.00 

11.80* 

.28 f 

1.90 

2.10 

2.00 

2.00 

2.10 

2.00 

12.10* 

.29 f 

2.10 

2.00 

2.10 

1.90 

2.00 

2.00 

12.10* 


79 - 34 * 

80.09* 

79.70* 

77.61* 

80.44* 

80.73* 

477.91* 


Note. —The dagger after the numbers in the lefthand column indicates that these num¬ 
bers are not added in, through the “Non-Add” key having been pressed down. On most 
machines the symbol might he the sign for number in place of the dagger. On duplex 
machines the totals at the right might be carried to the lower counter by pressing the 
Transfer Total key, and then would be followed by a small t in place of the star. 


ADDING MACHINE OPERATION 


127 


TALK No. 11 by the Morale Officer on 
The Desire to Learn 

There is one trait absolutely necessary for success, and that is 
the desire to learn. And the degree of success attained is in direct 
proportion to the strength of this desire. 

The common excuse given by those who have failed to educate 
themselves is, “I wanted to get an education—I wanted to learn— 
but I didn’t have a chance.” But, probably, while they were still 
in school they failed to appreciate the value of an education—that 
every day in school after the compulsory age enables one to earn 
$10 more in after life. A high school course is a capital invest¬ 
ment of $8,000 to $10,000. 

There is no such thing as “no chance to learn.” There is no 
boy or girl, possessing normal faculties, in the United States to-day 
who hasn’t a chance. There is no one who cannot learn, who can¬ 
not be continually increasing in knowledge and powers and possi¬ 
bilities, even after he leaves school. There is no young person in 
this day and time who cannot by some means ever be learning, 
who cannot day by day increase his store of knowledge. It is the 
young person’s fault if he is not cultivating his mind, it is his 
fault if he is not increasing his possibilities every day; it is his 
fault, and his alone, if he cannot say at the close of each day, 
“I have learned something to-day; I know more to-day than I did 
yesterday, because I have endeavored to improve myself.” 

“Well,” some one may say, “how can I go to school when I 
have to work all day?” The answer is, “Night school, or corre¬ 
spondence school.” Persons more than nineteen or twenty years 
of age, who have passed the sixth or seventh grade in the public 
school, can usually take a correspondence course to advantage. 
There are thousands of young people out of one of these continua¬ 
tion schools who could be there if they tried to be. It is pretty 
hard to attend night classes three or four nights a week after 
working hard all day. But many thousands of persons are doing 
it. Somehow or other they manage to stand it. For some reason 
they are willing to endure the discomforts and forego the pleasures 


128 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


that such a course entails. They have “spunk,” and they stick 
with their night studies in spite of tired bodies and minds. How 
much more ought those in day schools, with no work to do, to 
make the most of their opportunities! 

“But,” says some one, “suppose you cannot go to day school or 
night school?” The answer is, “Go to a teacher and ask him 
to help you to plan some home study.” Any teacher will gladly 
help you. Discuss with him your needs, let him test your knowl¬ 
edge of certain subjects, and he will prescribe what in his judgment 
is the best thing for you to devote your time to. Among the 

things that every boy and girl should study are English, reading, 

biography, science, and literature. The trouble with so many boys 
and girls is they drop the all-important fundamentals before they 
are prepared. Every student should strive to take what is known 
as the “regular course” (including arithmetic, spelling, and letter 
writing), until he has at least finished work equivalent to the high 

school course. Then there is plenty of time to take up stenog¬ 

raphy, bookkeeping, and other business courses. 

But perhaps just as important as the studies mentioned above 
is the study of one’s job, even for the person who only works 
Saturdays or an hour in the afternoon. This is not easy, because 
no regular plan or procedure can be outlined. A young worker 
will naturally learn much in the day’s work. If he works hard 
and keeps on the alert he will make progress. But “natural” 
progress is not enough. Those who limit their information to 
that picked up in the course of the day’s work make a serious 
mistake. 

There are three general lines to pursue in studying your work: 

1. Study your own particular job. Learn your duties thoroughly. 
Perfect yourself in their accomplishment. Study short-cuts. Elimi¬ 
nate unnecessary tasks. Work for speed and thoroughness. 

2. Study the job ahead of you. Watch the other man’s moves. 
Get his way of doing things. Jot down the things you learn about 
the job, and make note of things for future study. 

3. Study the business in general. Learn as much as you can 
about how things are run. Acquaint yourself with the duties of 


THE DESIRE TO LEARN 


129 

each officer and clerk. Make note of things that you do not under¬ 
stand, and write down what you learn. Get books from the library. 
Read catalogs and bulletins and advertising matter issued by 
your firm. 

A great aid in the above studies is a notebook. Read “Sug¬ 
gestions for a Business Notebook” on page 9 and follow in some 
form the plan given there. 

The time spent going from work can be utilized most profitably 
in thinking. Think about the day’s happenings. Run over in your 
mind the experiences of the day critically. See if you did every¬ 
thing just right. Think of other courses that might have been 
pursued more profitably. Think of what you have learned. Make 
mental note of things you did not understand. 

And then mornings while going to work, plan the day’s activities. 
Try to have clearly in mind the duties for the day. Think of plans 
for accomplishing more, of things you can do which will help you 
to make good. Of course we all like to read the newspapers, and 
a certain amount of time spent reading them is certainly all right. 
Every one should strive to keep up with the world’s happenings. 
Much valuable information can be got from the reading of the 
papers. But a great deal of time is wasted poring over the sport¬ 
ing pages, trashy stories, and the like, and every person who values 
his time will utilize it to the best possible advantage. 

A chance to learn certainly belongs to every young man and 
woman, in school and out. There is no one who cannot make his 
chance if he wants to. Yet, strange to say, there is many a young 
person to-day making no progress, learning nothing, making no 
effort to improve himself. There are thousands of young people 
who do not seem to care. They have a notion that they are learn¬ 
ing enough, that they are getting along pretty well, that they do 
not need to spend extra time studying, that somehow or other they 
will “luck it out.” Such people are on the road to failure. They 
are blind to the facts. They fail to understand that the desire 
to learn must be so strong that it will be followed by definite • 
action. 


CHAPTER XII 


Money, Credit, Banking 

There was a time when there was no such thing as money. , Goocfe 
were exchanged or bartered. For example, a man who raised 
cattle would exchange a cow for clothing or for wheat. Naturally 
this method was slow and unsatisfactory. Gradually, in each 
country there came to be some one article for which every one had 
more or less use, which served as a medium of exchange. For 
example, if in a certain community wheat was the medium of 
exchange, the cattleman would sell or exchange his cow for so 
many bushels of wheat and then exchange his wheat for clothing. 
In such a community the value of an article would be expressed in 
terms of wheat. But even this method was cumbersome. More¬ 
over, when a trader visited a strange community he had difficulty 
in finding a way to compare the value of his goods with those 
desired, for there perhaps the medium of exchange was skins 
or furs. 

After a long time, therefore, it came about that gold, and to a 
less degree, silver, became the medium of exchange in all countries. 
Just how this happened is too long a story to tell here. 

The money coined from gold and silver is easy to handle, has 
durability, and is recognized everywhere at about its face value, 
and is therefore a very convenient medium of exchange. All 
values are expressed in terms of gold or silver. For example, in 
this country we say an article is worth ten dollars, or twenty 
dollars. Moreover, we speak of John Smith as being worth 
$100,000, meaning that he has possessions which he could sell 
for $100,000. Part of Mr. Smith’s possessions may be actual 
money which he has deposited in a bank, and for which the bank 
has given him a receipt. It would be very inconvenient if Mr. 

130 


MONEY, CREDIT, BANKING 131 

Smith had to go to his bank, get out thirty dollars, and hand the 
thirty dollars to his tailor when he buys a suit of clothes. What 
he really does is make out what is known as a check. This check 
for $30 is simply a request, addressed to the bank, that $30 be 
paid to the tailor. So convenient is this method of transacting 
business that to-day approximately ninety per cent of the business 
transactions of any size are conducted in this way. No money 
changes hands at all. 

Suppose that the tailor, whom we will call Harry Hudson, also 
has an account (money on deposit) in the same bank. Suppose 
instead of taking money for the check he deposits it. The bank 
therefore credits his account with $30 and charges Smith’s 
account. The bank then owes Hudson $30 more than before and 
Smith $30 less. 

Suppose Mr. Smith, who is in the hardware business, desires 
to borrow $20,000 to buy a new stock of goods. He goes to 
his banker and makes application for the loan of this amount. 
The banker has known Smith a long time. He knows that Mr. 
Smith is honest, that he has been conducting a successful business 
for some years, and he believes that when Mr. Smith has bought 
the desired goods and sold them at a profit he will pay back the 
$20,000 and the interest charged. In other words, he believes 
that Mr. Smith’s credit is good for $20,000. Accordingly he 
agrees to let Mr. Smith have the money. He does not, however, 
hand Smith $20,000. He merely credits Smith’s account with 
this amount of money. Smith on his part gives to the banker his 
note, or promise to pay. This kind of loan is called a commercial 
loan. Such notes usually are payable in from ninety days to six 
months from date. 

Transactions of this kind are what are known as credit trans¬ 
actions. Actual money is not used. Most large business deals are 
conducted in some such manner. Nearly every individual or busi¬ 
ness house sooner or later comes to have what is known as a credit 
standing. That is to say, people know what each business is worth, 
how trustworthy its owners are, and how big a loan it is safe to 
make them. If a banker or a manufacturer is doubtful about the 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


13 2 

credit standing of a firm, he usually makes an investigation, and 
in addition refers to rating books which are prepared for this 
special purpose. The two principal books of this kind are compiled 
by Dun and by Bradstreet. 

Following are some definitions of financial terms and papers: 

Negotiable instruments are written obligations which may be 
used in the place of money. There are several kinds: 

1. Draft or Bill of Exchange, which is a written order by one 
person, called the drawer, on another person, the drawee, to pay 
to a third person, called the payee, a specified sum, the amount to 
be charged to the drawer. 

2. Promissory Note, which is a promise made in writing by one 
person to pay a sum of money on demand or at a fixed or deter¬ 
minable date, to another person or some one named by him. 

3. Checks, which are orders by depositors on their banks to pay 
money to the payee, mentioned in the check, or to some one named 
by him. 

A Certificate of Deposit is a receipt given by a bank to a depositor 
stating that he has deposited a specified sum, against which he 
cannot draw checks, but which is payable to his order when 
he returns the certificate. When one deposits money in a bank in 
the ordinary way he receives a check book or pass book showing the 
amount he has deposited. All subsequent deposits are indicated 
in this book. The depositor can then draw checks against these 
deposits. 

A certified check is a check upon which the bank has written 
its O. K., certifying that the amount called for by the check is 
actually on deposit, and that the amount will be held by the bank 
to pay that particular check. 

A cashier’s check is an order or check drawn by the cashier or 
other officer of a bank upon the bank itself, and is therefore a 
liability of the bank. 

If a man in Chicago desires to have funds in New York he goes 
to a bank, which carries an account with one of the New York 
banks, and makes arrangements to have the sum desired available 
for his needs in New York. This is termed an exchange trans- 


MONEY, CREDIT, BANKING 133 

action, and the man owns New York Exchange. Thousands of 
transactions of this kind are taking place daily between men in 
different parts of the country and serve the purpose principally 
of facilitating the payment of bills. Dealings of a similar nature 
between citizens or institutions of different countries are termed 
Foreign Exchange transactions. 

An order by one bank on another bank to pay money to a third 
person is a bank draft. 

The following are some of the departments in a bank: 

Paying Teller’s Department. Here checks are paid or certified. 
If the paying teller is not acquainted with a party seeking to cash 
a check he requires him to furnish the proper identification, which 
as a rule is an introduction by some one known to the teller or 
others in the bank. When an account is opened the depositor fills 
out a signature card which enables the teller to compare the signa¬ 
ture on the checks that come in with the original signature, and 
thereby safeguard the bank against cashing forged checks. 

Receiving Teller’s Department. Here money is received on 
deposit. The receiving teller distributes checks received to the 
bookkeepers and others, and turns the cash over to the paying teller 
at the end of the day. 

Note Teller’s Department. This department collects notes and 
drafts due at the bank or elsewhere in the town or city. 

Collection Department. This department collects notes, drafts, 
etc., when payable out of town. 

Individual Ledger Department. Here the records, or accounts, 
of the individual depositors are kept. Most depositors turn in their 
pass-books to this department near the end of the month to be 
balanced. From the record of each account the ledger clerks make 
statements showing the total credits, or deposits, made during the 
month, and the total debits, or checks cashed. The difference 
shows the balance on deposit due the depositor. Each month the 
bank returns with the balanced pass-books the checks cashed during 
the month. Many banks have adopted a system of sending each 
depositor at the close of each month a statement of his account, 
together with his checks which the bank has paid during the month. 


134 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


Under this arrangement it is not necessary for the depositor to 
present his pass-book for balancing. If a firm issues checks for 
an amount in excess of the amount on deposit, and if the bank 
honors or cashes all checks presented, the firm is said to be “in the 
red” with the bank, because overdrafts are indicated by an entry 
in red ink on the books of the bank. 

Making Deposits 

It often falls to the lot of the junior clerk in the office to make 
deposits. If such should be the case w r ith you, there are several 
points that you should watch. 

In the first place, you should go straight to the bank and back 
each time without loitering on the way. 

Be very careful with the money and checks given you to deposit. 
In some cases it might be well before leaving your place of business 
to see that the amount of money given you corresponds with the 
amount called for on the deposit ticket, but ordinarily this will not 
be feasible. Keep your mind on what you are doing and do not 
for a moment forget where you are going and what you have 
with you. 

There are four kinds of money which may be listed on your 
deposit slips : i, gold ; 2, silver ; 3, currency (bills), and 4, checks. 
After the receiving teller has checked the money handed him with 
the amount listed on the deposit slip, he enters the amount in your 
pass-book, which you are to take back to the office. When a pass¬ 
book is not used in making deposits, deposit slips should be made 
out in duplicate, one of which, properly stamped, will be returned 
by the teller. 

Endorsing Checks 

All checks, except when payable to “Cash” or “Bearer,” must 
be endorsed before they can be cashed. Endorsements are always 
written on the back of the check. The name should be written 
crosswise near the left-hand end, or on the side opposite the end 


MONEY, CREDIT, BANKING 135 

which is on your left when you are reading the check. Should 
you desire to make the check payable to some one else, write on the 
back, “Pay to the order of John Smith,” or “Pay to the order of 
John Jones,” as the case may be, and sign your name. 

Assignment on Banks 

First make a list of the principal banks in the city in which you 
are working. Mark each bank in the list as commercial or savings, 
or both commercial and savings. What is the difference? Can 
you make out checks on a savings bank ? 

First Visit to a Bank 

Plan a visit to some of the commercial banks in your city. What 
are the hours during which the bank is open for business? In 
large cities these are usually between 10 and 3, on Saturdays be¬ 
tween 9 and 12. In smaller cities the hours vary, and some banks 
are open longer hours. 

Write down the following questions in your notebook and get 
good answers to each. There is usually a watchman in the bank 
who will answer these questions. 

1. Find the window of the “Receiving Teller,” and watch the 
making of deposits. Does each depositor present a bank book, and 
what does it look like? 

2. Does each depositor have a deposit slip made out in advance ? 
Does the teller check the deposits of money and checks on this 
deposit slip? Get one of the slips and see just what is on it. Is 
there a line for “gold”? For “silver”? For “currency”? What 
is “currency”? Is there a place for'“Clearing House” deposits? 
What are these? Where are out-of-town checks entered? 

3. Find the window of the “Paying Teller” and watch the cash¬ 
ing of checks. Does the paying teller recognize personally every 
one who offers a check for payment? What particularly does he 
look for on each check? How does he identify the signature? 

4. Find the “bookkeeping” window. What do customers of 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


136 

the bank leave their books here for ? Have the deposits already 
been entered ? Who has entered them, and when ? What do they 
want written in the books at the “bookkeeping” window ? When 
the book is returned, what do they get back with the book ? 

5. If possible get a blank check and fill it out as payable to your 

doctor or dentist for $5, but do not sign it, as that would be wrong 
when you have no account. v 

6. What is necessary in order to open a checking account ? Does 
the person who wishes to keep the account need to be introduced 
personally to the cashier? What is the object of that? How much 
money does he need to deposit at first ? How much money does he 
need to keep in the account all the time ? 

7. When the bank receives checks from depositors, where does 
it send those drawn on banks in the same city? Where does it 
send money orders? Where does it send checks on out-of-town 
banks. 


Second Visit to a Bank 

For the second visit to a bank, you should get an introduction 
to some employee of the bank who can answer the following ques¬ 
tions. First write the questions in your notebook with blank spaces 
after them, and on your visit write in the answers as you get them. 

1. Does the person who makes deposits have to be identified 
personally, or can any one make deposits if he has the bank book 
and checks or money to deposit? 

2. Do all checks have to be endorsed before deposit? Who 
endorses them? Is this commonly done in writing or with a rubber 
stamp? What does - the endorsement mean to the bank? If a 
check is not a good one, who loses the money ? 

3. How is a check certified ? What is the advantage in having 
it certified ? When is a certified check used ? 

4. Do banks carry their own accounts in other banks ? Where, 
for example, does the bank you visit have its accounts? What do 
you call the checks of one bank on another bank? What is the 
advantage of a draft over an ordinary personal check? What is a 
cashier’s check ? 


TRUE ADVANCEMENT 


r i 37 

5. Is there a note teller’s window? How do notes read? Are 
they deposited in a bank like checks ? What does it mean to deposit 
them for collection? What does it mean to discount them at 
the bank? 

6. Is there a collection window? How does a bank undertake 
to collect money for its customers? What are “customer’s drafts”? 
What is the difference between sight drafts and time drafts? 
How are drafts attached to bills of lading used to make C. O. D. 
shipments by freight? 

7. If possible get a chance to look at a stock certificate. Also 
at a bond. Stocks and bonds are often used as “collateral” to get 
loans at a bank. Find out what kinds of collateral will be accepted 
by the bank you visit for loans, and how much money will be 
loaned. Money is also loaned by discounting notes: find out on 
what kinds of notes the bank will lend money. 


TALK No. 12 by the Morale Officer on 
True Advancement 

The average worker looks upon advancement in terms of increase 
of salary. When he says, “There’s no advancement,” he means, 
“I can’t get a raise.” 

If an employee deserves a raise he should get it. But to measure 
advancement entirely by raises in salary is a serious error. Advance¬ 
ment is progress, is increased knowledge, is more ability. And these 
are things that the junior in business should be thinking about. 
These things he should make sure he is getting. If there is an 
increase in ability, the increase of salary will take care of itself. 
Indeed, there is often a raise in salary without an increase in 
ability, but there is seldom increase in ability without the proper 
recognition of it. 

In order to make real progress an employee must learn—and 
keep on learning. When he quits trying to learn how to do his job 
better, when he quits trying to learn more about the work ahead 
of him and the business generally, he is not advancing. 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


138 

Moreover, the time element does not necessarily enter into 
advancement, or progress. “I’ve been working there a year,” 
applicants tell me, “and they haven’t given me a raise yet.” 

“What have you learned ?” I ask. 

“Nothing much—there’s nothing to learn—there’s no advance¬ 
ment there.” 

Now in normal times if one works a year in one pla^e without 
a raise it is generally his own fault. Merit, ability, knowledge— 
these rarely go unheeded these days. If you imagine that the boss 
is stingy or has a grudge against you, and for these reasons will 
not promote you or raise your salary, you are badly fooled. If a 
promotion or increase in pay is not forthcoming there is, as a rule, 
hut one reason—inefficiency, inability, lack of get-up on the worker’s 
part. Every employee in a firm is supposed to be worth money to 
that business. Every worker is supposed to render services or have 
an earning power in excess of his salary. If he is not worth more 
to his employer than he receives from his employer, his services 
might as well be dispensed with. 

It is, therefore, a matter of good business for a firm to retain 
the services of those employees worth most to it. It would cer¬ 
tainly be poor business for a manager to let even a junior clerk 
go if that clerk’s services are valuable, if he earns more than he 
makes. 

The boss cannot increase a salary unless the earning power of 
the employee is increased. This holds true regardless of length 
of service. The question is not how long have you worked in a 
place, hut what have you learned, how much progress have you 
made, how much more are you worth to your firm now than when 
you started? 

It is not the job that counts, but the man—not so much the 
length of service as the quality of service. Some workers will 
advance themselves in any job, others in none. The person who 
will not learn something in a poor place will learn little in the best 
place. The worker who will not take advantage of the smallest 
opportunity to increase his store of knowledge will not take advan¬ 
tage of the best opportunity. I have sent applicants to splendid 


TRUE ADVANCEMENT 


139 


positions and had them come back later with the tale, “There’s no 
chance to learn there—there’s no advancement.” And then again 
I’ve sent others to comparatively poor, insignificant places, and 
heard them later say, “I’m learning all I can here, so that when 
I get a better job I shall know how to take advantage of my 
opportunities there.” 

Of course it is true that some positions offer better chances for 
advancement than others. But the right kind of employee, the one 
with real stuff in him, cannot be put in a place where he will not 
advance himself. If the chances are not good for him in the job 
that he has, some one else, some firm looking for a worker of big 
caliber, will offer him something before long. There is no such 
thing as downing a worker with spirit, with pluck—one that has 
advancement in him. 

Looking for a job that has advancement in it is something like 
trying to develop muscle without exercising for it. A man might 
go to a gymnasium and watch the members exercise for a year 
without bettering his own body, without developing any muscle. 
Then he may decide to try a little exercise himself, and so he gets 
a gym suit and starts exercising. Presently he finds that it is hard 
work; that it takes effort, and persistent effort at that. He goes 
to the director and says, “I don’t find that I have any more muscle 
than I had when I started; besides, it’s hard work. I’m going to 
find a place where muscle can be developed without so much 
effort.” That’s the picture of a beginner who is too short-sighted 
and too lazy to earn advancement. That’s the picture of the worker 
who quits his job and starts looking for a place where advancement 
will come a little easier. 

Progress—real progress—comes only as a result of hard work, 
of most earnest effort. If you wish to succeed you must be willing 
to pay the price of hard work and persistent endeavor. Every 
person who has advanced himself has gone through a period of 
hard work, a period of sacrifice. He has been willing to put every¬ 
thing aside that would hinder progress, so that he has a clear field 
in which to direct his efforts. Putting aside temporary pleasures 


140 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


for a while, he has later found real happiness in the realization that 
he is succeeding, that he is getting somewhere. 

There is no pleasure more real than the joy that comes with the 
feeling that you are advancing, that you are making the moments 
count for progress. Resolve to-day that you will earn advance¬ 
ment by working with all your might in your job. At first you 
might not see where progress is possible. You may think that 
you have a bad job; you may not see a chance to get ahead. But 
if you form a judgment too quickly you will make a great mistake, 
the mistake that thousands of young people have made with dire 
results. If you will plug away with all your might, if you will 
study your work, if you will keep your eyes and ears open, and 
if you will learn to use your head, you will find that there is 
advancement there, you will find that already you are making real 
progress. 

This does not mean, of course, that one should stay in a poor 
place indefinitely. Not at all. But it does mean that one should 
not change until he is sure, very sure, that he is bettering himself. 
But even if one contemplates making a change, he should do his 
very best to learn and make progress in the position already 
occupied. 

Many people are going around looking for “soft” jobs. As a 
rule the easier the job, the less the opportunity. And, on the other 
hand, the position that requires one’s full time, that makes him 
exert himself to the limit of his physical and mental powers, is the 
place offering every inducement for progress. The worker who 
tries to make progress holding down easy jobs is like the fellow 
who tries to develop muscle without exercise. Easy jobs may be 
nice now, but in the long run they injure. 

Don’t be afraid of hard jobs. 

They develop the mental muscle called advancement. 


CHAPTER XIII 


City Geography and Transportation 

It is surprising how ignorant many city people are of the 
geography of their own city. Wherever one goes, whether to 
Boston, or St. Louis, or San Francisco, he will find many people, 
born and raised on one side of the city, who actually do not know 
what the other side looks like. It often happens, even in some of 
the smaller cities, that a young man—a native, too—sent on an 
errand across town has to ask how to get there. People are accus¬ 
tomed to using certain street car lines; so they do not concern 
themselves about the general transportation scheme. They have 
little occasion to visit remote parts of town; so they never take 
the trouble to learn anything about them. 

The purpose, therefore, of this lesson is to stress the importance 
of knowing thoroughly the town or city in which one lives, and to 
suggest lessons and exercises which can be prepared to cover each 
city. The lessons are based upon New York City, because such 
lessons cover the widest possible field and there is the largest 
possible variety of points to call attention to. 

But ignorance of local geography is not all confined to those 
living in cities. Many people living in the country and small towns 
are just as ignorant of their county geography. What direction the 
county lines run, where the principal roads are, and just where all 
towns are located, are things which every country resident should 
know. 

If possible, a copy of the best map of each particular town or 
city or county should be secured by students. 

141 


142 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


Exercise: (Borough of Manhattan, New York City) 

Locate the following streets on the map: Canal, Liberty, Dey, 
John, Church, Washington, West, Front, Lafayette, William, 
Wall, Vesey, Exchange Place, Broad, Nassau, Park Place, War¬ 
ren, Chambers, Maiden Lane, Beaver, Battery Place, Fulton, Pearl, 
Desbrosses, Cedar, Pine, Cortlandt, Delancey, Manhattan Avenue, 
West Broadway, Houston, Christopher, Franklin, Grand, Bleecker, 
Liberty. 

Where does Fifth Avenue begin? Park Avenue? Madison 
Avenue? Of what street is Columbus Avenue a continuation? 
Amsterdam? West End Avenue? Central Park West? 

What are the important crosstown streets between Canal Street 
and 125th Street? 

Upon what crosstown streets are there surface car lines? 

Learn the names and order of the streets touching or crossing 
Broadway between Bowling Green and 14th Street. 

Name and locate some important streets in Manhattan which 
have not been mentioned. 


Bridges 

Name the bridges spanning the East River? Where on the map 
is the Manhattan terminus of each? 

Ferries 

Name and locate on the map two Hudson River ferries, two 
East River ferries, and two Battery Place ferries. 

Railroad Stations 

The Pennsylvania, Baltimore & Ohio, and Long Island* Railroad 
trains run into the Pennsylvania Station, and the New York 
Central and New York, New Haven & Hartford trains run into 
the Grand Central Station. Where are the stations of the Central 
Railroad of New Jersey, Lackawanna, Erie, and West Shore rail- 


CITY GEOGRAPHY AND TRANSPORTATION 143 

roads? How do you get to these stations? What railroad runs 
into the Hudson Terminal Building? 


Parks 

Locate the following squares and parks: Union Square, 
Madison Square, Herald Square, Times Square, Lincoln Square, 
Chatham Square, Hanover Square, Bryant Park, Central Park, 
Gramercy Park, Stuyvesant Park, Tompkins Square, Washington 
Square, Columbus Circle, Battery Park, Morningside Park, Ham¬ 
ilton Fish Park. 


Important Buildings 


Learn the location of the following buildings. Locate them on 
the City Map: 

Name Location 

United States Custom House.Bowling Green, foot of Broadway 

Produce Exchange.Bowling Green 

White Hall Building.17 Battery Place 

Trinity Building. hi Broadway 

U. S. Realty Building.115 Broadway 

Adams Building.57 and 61 Broadway 

Bankers Trust.N. W. corner Wall and Nassau Sts. 

Cotton Exchange.Beaver and William Sts. 

National City Bank.55 Wall St. 

J. P. Morgan & Co.Corner Wall and Broad Sts. 

New York Stock Exchange.Broad St. near Wall St. 

National Park Bank.214 Broadway 

Chamber of Commerce.65 Liberty St. 

Consolidated Stock Exchange.S. E. corner Broad and Beaver Sts. 

Hudson Terminal Buildings.30 and 50 Church St. 

Singer Building.N. W. cor. Broadway and Liberty St. 

City Investing Building.Broadway, Cortlandt and Church Sts. 

Equitable Building.Broadway, Cedar and Pine Sts. 

Liberty Tower.N. W. cor. Liberty and Nassau Sts. 

Woolworth Building.Broadway, Barclay and Park Place 

Municipal Building.Park Row and Center St. 

Federal Building (Post Office).Broadway and Park Row 

Pulitzer Building.Park Row, opposite City Hall Park 

Tribune Building.Park Row, opposite City Hall Park 

Bradstreet’s .Lafayette St., cor. Howard St. 

Hall of Records.Chambers St., cor. Center St. 

Dun Building.N. E. cor. Broadway and Reade St. 

Police Headquarters.Center St. to Center Park Place 





























144 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


Consolidated Gas Co. 

Grand Central Station. 

Fifth Avenue Building. 

Fuller Building (Flatiron). 

Madison Square Garden. 

Hotel McAlpin. 

Metropolitan Life Insurance Co 

Pennsylvania Station. 

Post Office (up town), General. 

Gimbel’s . 

R. H. Macy & Co. 

Saks & Company. 

World’s Tower Building. 

Times Building. 

Lord & Taylor’s. 

Hotel Belmont. 

Biltmore Hotel. 

Hotel Astor. 

Metropolitan Museum of Art... 

New York Public Library. 

Hotel Commodore. 

Plaza Hotel. 


S. E. cor. Irving PI. and E. 15th St. 
42nd St. and Vanderbilt Ave. 

Madison Square 

Broadway, 5th Ave. and 23rd St. 

26th St. and Madison Ave. 

Broadway and 34th St. 

Madison Square 

7th Ave., 31st to 33rd Sts. 

8th Ave. and 32nd St. 

6th Ave. and 33rd St. 

6th Ave. and 34th St. 

6th Ave. and Broadway 
108 West 40th St. 

42nd Street and Broadway 
5th Ave. and 38th St. 

Park Ave. and 41st St. 

Madison Ave., 43rd to 44th Sts. 

Times Square 

Central Park at 82nd St. and 5th Ave. 
5th Ave., 40th to 42nd Sts. 

42nd St. and Lexington Ave. 

5th Ave. and 59th St. 


Give the name and location of ten other important buildings in 
Manhattan. 

Name the buildings in your list, and in the list given above, that 
you remember to have been in; those that you have only seen. 


Surface Lines 

Learn the name of each street car line, and the route of each. 
Learn the transfer points, the location of car barns, etc. 

Draw a map showing the above. 


) 

Subway 

Learn the subway routes, the names of each division, the color 
of the lights distinguishing the trains, the express stations, the 
local stations. Take several imaginary trips, involving changes 
from express trains to local trains. Point out where subway lines 
cross one another and where it is possible to transfer from one line 
to another. Get an idea of the running time between express sta¬ 
tions and from one end of each line to the other. 
























CITY GEOGRAPHY AND TRANSPORTATION 145 


The Elevated 

Learn the same things about the elevated roads. Get a picture 
in your mind of the routes, terminals, etc. 

Upon request students in almost every town and city can secure 
a map showing the city transportation lines. 

Note 

One of the officials of the street car lines or of other transpor¬ 
tation lines will be glad to make a talk to a class group explaining 
many interesting and useful things about the system—the dispatch¬ 
ing of cars or trains, safety-first methods, how to save time, etc. 

Assignment on City Geography 

A map should be drawn or traced from a local guide book or 
large map, about the size of a letter sheet, which will show the 
local city boundaries, waterways, railroad stations and the principal 
railroads entering them, and half a dozen of the most important 
streets, all without names. 

Exercise on Streets 

On the map thus prepared, first of all write in the names of the 
waterways, railroad stations and railroads, and streets that have 
been reproduced on the map. A map of Manhattan, New York, 
would show the North and the East Rivers, the Grand Central 
Station and the Pennsylvania Station, Broadway, Third Avenue, 
Sixth Avenue, Seventh Avenue, Ninth Avenue, Chambers Street, 
14th Street, 42nd Street, 124th Street, and Central Park. For 
other towns or cities decide on what items ought to go on the 
outline map to start with. 

When the names of the items drawn in the outline map have 
been inserted correctly, the additional important streets should be 
added. A list of these should be decided on, and then if you are 
not familiar with them you should if possible go to the streets and 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


146 

see how they run. If there is not time to go to all of these, as 
many as possible should be visited and entered in the map as they 
actually appear on observation, and the others should be looked 
out on a complete map available at some library, real estate office, 
or the like. The first step is deciding on the list of streets to be 
drawn into the map and named, and the second step is placing them 
correctlv in the map. 

» 

Exercise on Railroad Stations, Bridges, Ferries, and Parks 

Students should make a list of the railroad stations other than 
those already drawn on the map, the bridges, the ferries, and the 
parks which are important enough to go in the map. These should 
be written down in the notebooks. 

If you are not familiar with any of these you should, if possible, 
visit them and see where they are and how they are placed, or look 
them up on the city map. 

All should be entered on the map and named. This work should 
be carefully compared with an authoritative map to see that it is 
correct. 


Exercise on Buildings 

Next make up a list of important buildings which a messenger 
in the city under study might be likely to be called on to go to. We 
already have the railroad stations: they are perhaps the most 
important buildings. Next should come the city hall, the Federal 
building or main post office and headquarters of United States 
courts and offices, the police headquarters if not in the city hall, 
three or four of the largest and most important office buildings in 
different parts of the city. The chamber of commerce, the public 
library, the high school buildings, the headquarters of the Board 
of Education, the art museum if there is one, and other special 
buildings in each particular city will have consideration. 

When this list has been prepared, each building should be cor¬ 
rectly entered in the map and named there, in some cases after a 


CITY GEOGRAPHY AND TRANSPORTATION 147 

personal visit to see just where it is located, or by placing it on the 
map after looking up the street number or street intersection in a 
telephone directory or a city directory. 

Exercise on Street Numbers and Transportation Lines 

Now that we have the important points which a person in busi¬ 
ness may be called on to visit, the means of getting from any one 
point to any other point must be studied out. 

First let us consider how the street numbers run. In most cities 
these are so arranged that each block begins with a fresh hundred. 
As many numbers in that hundred are used as the buildings or 
vacant lots in that block call for, and the remainder are simply 
disregarded and the next block begins with the following hundred. 
The even numbers will be on one side of the street and the odd 
numbers on the other side of the street. With this plan of number¬ 
ing, any particular number can be located by simply counting the 
blocks, though there may be small side streets or “places” which 
are disregarded. Enter on this map the numbers that start the 
chief blocks on the main thoroughfares, after a list of these has 
been decided on and written in the notebook. 

Next the surface car, subway, and elevated transportation lines 
should be decided on, and then drawn on the map with colored ink. 
Red may be used for the surface lines, green for the elevated, and 
blue for the subways if there are any, or any convenient com¬ 
binations of colors may be selected. 

Finally a central point should be decided on for imaginary trips 
and a list of trips chosen and written in the notebooks. Then see 
what would be the quickest and most convenient way to make each 
trip and be prepared to describe it. See that the proper car lines 
for each of these trips have been drawn on the map. Six to ten 
trips would be a good number. 

In making each trip, note in your book just how each car to be 
taken would be marked, what number or lights or words should 
be observed. Plan actually to take as many of these trips as pos¬ 
sible, and make notes on any peculiarities observed. 


148 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


TALK No. 13 by the Morale Officer on 

Errands 

Note.—W hile boys do most outside errands in business, girls are some¬ 
times called upon, and it would be well for the girls as well as boys to 
consider this lesson carefully, though it is especially addressed to boys. 

Every working boy has to run some errands. The boy who runs 
his errands intelligently and willingly will soon qualify for some¬ 
thing better. Some boys occupy errand-boy jobs only a few months. 
Others run errands for years. The difference is in the way the 
boys go about their work. The first do their trips with a will. 
They are proud to have an opportunity to show their energy and 
ambition. The second kind look down upon an errand-boy’s job. 
They want inside work—office work. Such boys, when asked to 
go out on a trip, show by their looks and manner that they dislike 
to go. There is no willingness there, no desire to please, no intense 
anxiety to do their allotted work in a manner pleasing to the em¬ 
ployer. Never do a job poorly just simply because you dislike to 
do it. Either do your task thoroughly or do not attempt it at all. 
The boy who doesn’t do his allotted work well because he is tired 
of it will not make good at any kind of work. 

Regardless of the kind of job you get, you will have to do some 
errand and messenger service. Make up your mind that you will 
be the best messenger boy the firm ever had. Make up your mind 
that you will go about your work with such enthusiasm and vim 
that the attention of your employer will be attracted and you will 
thus be in line for promotion. How long a boy has to be an errand 
boy depends upon how hard he tries. 

Following are some suggestions and rules which you should 
seek to follow. They will prove helpful. 

First, if you are not timed, indicate on a slate or board or pad, 
where it will be seen, the approximate time you will return. 

Second, if you are given a certain length of time to make a trip, 
don’t think that it is necessary for you to stay the full time. If you 
can do so without tiring yourself too severely, get back ahead 
of time. 


ERRANDS 


149 


Third, if you are given car fare, don’t walk and put the money 
in your pocket. If you can walk without wasting time or using up 
too much energy, you should do so and return the money. Walking 
and pocketing car-fare money is dishonest. It is stealing. 

Fourth, be sure that you know where you are going before you 
start. Also know exactly what you are expected to do. If every¬ 
thing is not clear to you, do not start out. It is always better to ask 
questions and make sure than to, get away from the office and have 
to come back, or make a mistake. You should have in mind 
clearly— 

a. Street, number, room number. 

b. Name of person or firm to see. 

c. If an answer is expected. 

d. The quickest way to reach your destination. 

Fifth, be pleasant and agreeable to the person visited. Try to 
impress him with your neat, cheery, businesslike way. Here is an 
opportunity to make friends for yourself and for your firm. 

Sixth, when outside you have an opportunity to learn many 
things. Among these things are the names and locations of streets, 
names and locations of buildings, where numbers on streets are, 
important business houses. Keep your eyes open. Let your look¬ 
ing and seeing mean something to you. Have in mind as you go 
along exactly the things you wish to learn. A boy might go about 
all over the city looking at things with a kind of idle curiosity and 
not know any more when he finished than when he started. The 
things mentioned, and many others, can be learned without delaying 
your trip a particle. 

Seventh, don’t let fires, or soap-box orators, or baseball score 
boards, or other exciting things detain you. Don’t be too curious 
or too easily turned aside. Remember that time is precious, that it 
belongs to your firm and not to you, and that a few delays might 
make you lose the confidence of your boss. 

Deliveries 

What has been said about running errands applies fully to 
delivery work. In addition, however— 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


150 

First, be sure that packages are securely wrapped before leaving 
the store or office. 

Second, don’t hold packages so that a competitor or others can 
read the names and destinations thereon. 

Third, be careful with what you are carrying. Take care that 
it does not come unwrapped, and that you do not drop it. 

Fourth, if you get a heavy package sometimes, do not be too 
quick to complain or say you can’t deliver it. Of course, no firm 
of the right sort will give a boy more than he can carry. But some¬ 
times heavy bundles are unavoidable, and you should make the 
delivery without complaint. 

Fifth, if so instructed, always take a receipt. See that the 
material delivered answers, as well as you can make out, the de¬ 
scription given in your receipt book. 

Sixth, be sure that you deliver to the right party. When in 
serious doubt, take the package back with you, or telephone the 
office. 

Seventh, of course if you have several deliveries to make, 
you will arrange your route so as not to lap back and forth 
unnecessarily. 


CHAPTER XIV 


Railroad Information 
Freight 

The two main purposes of a railroad are to carry passengers and 
freight. Handling freight is the more profitable. 

Freight is divided into six classes. An example of first-class 
freight, which carries the highest rate, is perishables or breakable 
material, such as fruit or glassware. Groceries generally come 
within the second class, hardware in the third class, and sand, 
stone, coal, lumber and such material which require less careful 
handling are fourth, fifth, or sixth class. 

Railroads refer to various materials as commodities. When 
commodities falling within the last three classes move in carload 
or trainload lots, special rates are established. These rates are 
known as “commodity” or carload rates. 

Following is an illustration of how freight is handled: 

Suppose you want to send a bicycle to your friend Frank in a 
nearby town. When you deliver the bicycle to the local freight 
agent he gives you a paper called a bill of lading, which is both a 
receipt and a guarantee that the bicycle will be delivered in good 
condition. The agent makes out what is known as a waybill, which 
is given to the conductor of the train on which the bicycle is 
shipped. In the meantime you send the bill of lading to Frank, 
thus notifying him that you have shipped the bicycle. When the 
train reaches Frank’s town the bicycle is taken out of the car and 
the waybill given by the conductor to the freight agent, who sends 
Frank a freight notice advising him that the bicycle has arrived. 
Frank then presents his bill of lading to the agent and thereby 

151 


i 5 2 FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 

establishes his claim to the bicycle. Should Frank fail to call for 
the bicycle promptly, storage would be charged him. 

When goods are lost or damaged the railroad, through its claim 
agent, will make a proper settlement with the consignee. 

When receipting for goods, take care that the proper consign¬ 
ment is being receipted for. Should it be discovered upon opening 
the case in which the goods are packed that there is shortage or 
damage, the claim agent of the local station should be notified 
before the goods are disturbed. 

Passenger Service 

All trains, freight and passenger, are numbered, but, in addition, 
some passenger trains have special names, such as “The Broad¬ 
way” on the Pennsylvania from New York to Chicago, or the 
“20th Century Limited” on the New York Central between 
the same cities. 

In purchasing a ticket the following points should be noted: 

1. Time of departure of train. 

2. Number of train, or special name, if any. 

3. Whether Pullman transportation is desired. 

4. Whether train is extra fare or not. 

A Pullman ticket entitles the holder to a specified sleeping berth, 
upper or lower, or to a chair in a parlor car. Every Pullman 
ticket should show car number, berth number, and whether upper 
or lower (if a sleeper ticket). 

Extra fares are charged on many trains running between large 
cities. As a rule a special form of ticket is used for passage on an 
extra fare train. 

Under certain conditions and according to specified rules rail¬ 
road companies will make a refund covering the unused portion 
of tickets. 


Baggage 

All railroad tickets, unless otherwise specified, as in the case of 
many special excursion tickets, entitle the holder to 150 pounds 


RAILROAD INFORMATION 


153 

of baggage, to be transported in the baggage car. On baggage 
weighing over 150 pounds, a charge is made for the excess weight. 

The usual method of transporting baggage to the depot is by 
means of a local transportation company, which at any time will 
call for and deliver baggage to the baggage agent. A numbered 
baggage check is issued in triplicate, one copy of which is attached 
to the trunk, another given to the holder of the ticket, and the third 
retained by the agent. Baggage cannot be checked until the ticket 
is purchased, as it is necessary at the time the baggage is checked to 
punch the ticket with a B. C. (baggage checked) punch. 

At destination the check can be given to any baggage transfer 
agent (often the agent of some transfer company is on the train), 
who will call for the trunk and deliver it to the place designated. 
Care should always be taken that a bona fide, trustworthy transfer 
agent is entrusted with the check, since often trunks are stolen by 
those who falsely represent themselves to be transfer men. 

How to Read a Time-Table 

Every one should know how to read a time-table. Following is 
a time-table showing trains running between Binghamton and 
Utica, N. Y., on the Lackawanna. Black-faced type always means 
P. M., while light type means A. M. The left-hand side of the 
table should always be read down and the right-hand side up. 

The numbers at the top, 819, 861, 803, etc., represent the official 
train numbers. Note the special remarks concerning certain trains 
at the bottom. 

Number 819, running daily except Sundays, leaves Binghamton 
at 5 :55 P. M. and arrives at Utica at 9105 P. M. As no time is 
given for the arrival at Sangerfield and Paris, this train does not 
stop at these stations at all. By the same token, No. 845, which 
is a mixed train (containing both passenger and freight cars), 
does not stop at Willard’s. Under column headed “Miles” the 
distance between stations is given. Binghamton is 206.9 miles 
from New York and 5.1 from Chenango Bridge. 

In traveling from Utica to Binghamton, you use the right-hand 


read down BINGHAMTON TO UTICA read up 



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RAILROAD INFORMATION 


155 

side of the table. If you left Utica at 10:35 A. M. you would 
arrive in Binghamton at 1 150 P. M. 

While this time-table is intended primarily to show the trains 
and running time on the Binghamton-Utica Division of the rail¬ 
road, the upper part shows the time of arrival and departure of the 
same trains at Hoboken and New York. For instance, a party 
leaving Utica on No. 812 at 9:50 P. M. would arrive in Bingham¬ 
ton at 1 105 the next morning, in Hoboken at 7 .-42 A. M. and in 
New York (by ferry) at 9:00 A. M. 

Assignment on Railroads 

You should procure a time-table for use in this assignment. 
First of all make a list of the principal railroads entering your 
city, the location of the passenger stations, the location of the 
freight stations, and the location of “city” ticket offices. 

Arranging Trips on Passenger Trains 

The first exercise may be one on looking up train service. 
Prepare a series of exercises on trips that might be arranged from 
the time-table that has been secured. The first trip should be one 
that can be made in a few hours in a day coach without change of 
cars. The second trip should be one that will require a Pullman. 
The third trip should be one that requires changing cars and look¬ 
ing up the time in two different time-tables. The trip should be 
considered as being made from the home town to the place that is 
mentioned, the name of which will be found in the time-table sup¬ 
plied. These should be written in the notebook. Then each of the 
following questions should be answered as to each trip. 

1. To make a comfortable day trip, when could you start and 
when would you arrive? How can you distinguish between fore¬ 
noon trains apd afternoon and evening trains—in what two ways? 

2. To make a comfortable night trip with Pullman, when would 
you start and when would you arrive ? 

3. What would the fare be? (Answer obtained at any ticket 
office.) 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


156 

4. What would the Pullman ticket cost for a lower berth? For 
an upper berth ? What does a Pullman ticket look like ? What is 
the difference in color between the ticket for an upper and a ticket 
for a lower? What would a parlor-car seat cost? 

5. How can you tell from the time-table whether the train you 
select has a Pullman car? A parlor car? Whether it charges an 
extra fare? 

6. On each of these trips, at what times could you conveniently 
return and when would you arrive? 

7. Where do you find the numbers of the trains, and of what 
use are the numbers ? 

How to Take Baggage 

8. How many pounds of baggage does a railroad carry free in 
the baggage car ? Is the hand baggage you have with you counted ? 

9. If you have a small steamer trunk (what is a “steamer” 
trunk?), how will you get it to the station? What special express 
company makes a business of calling for trunks and taking them 
to the station? What would the charge be from your home to the 
station indicated in the time-table? How would you find your 
trunk at the station so you could check it ? 

Visit to a Freight Station 

No advance arrangements need be made for a visit to a freight 
station. There may be different stations for outgoing and incom¬ 
ing freight, or these two may be handled in different parts of the 
same station. 

Write the following questions in your notebook and get answers 
to them on the visit. 

1. What is “outgoing freight”? 

2. What is the difference between local way freight and carload 
freight? 

3. What kinds of shipments go by freight? How are they 
taken to the station? 


RAILROAD INFORMATION 


157 

4. When a teamster takes a freight shipment to the station, 
what sort of receipt does he get when he leaves it? What is the 
“bill of lading”? How many copies are there of the bill of lading? 
(Look at several and see what they are and how receipt of the 
freight is stamped on them.) 

5. What is “incoming freight”? How does a person who ex¬ 
pects to receive a shipment by freight know when it has arrived? 
Does he always have to present the bill of lading in order to get it ? 

6. How are the charges for freight usually paid, when the 
shipment is made or when it is received? How are the charges 
reckoned? What would be the difference in charges between a 
shipment weighing 100 pounds and one weighing 25 pounds? 

7. What is the difference between the carload rate and the local 
rate from your home town to any other city you may select to 
find out about at the freight office? To get this rate it will be 
necessary to decide what the goods shall be, so the class can be de¬ 
termined, as the rate differs for different classes or kinds of goods. 

Visit to an Express Office 

Formerly there were different express companies, such as the 
American Express, the United States Express, the Wells-Fargo 
Express, the Adams Express, the Southern Express, etc. Now 
there is only one company, the American Railway Express 
company. 

1. What sort of receipt is given when a package is shipped by 
express? Examine the “collect” book in which a given business 
house will have all its receipts entered when the express charges 
are to be paid at the other end, and also the “prepaid” book in 
which receipts are taken when the shipper is to pay the charges 
to a collector who will call a few days later at the office of the 
company. 

2. How do express charges compare with freight charges ? Does 
the express company collect the package by wagon and deliver by 
wagon? Does the railroad company collect and deliver freight in 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


158 

this way ? How does the speed of shipment compare ? What is the 
advantage on small packages ? 

3. If a package is lost, how much does the express company 
have to pay ? How are packages of special value handled ? Does 
the express company ship bundles of money or checks for banks? 
How are such shipments protected? 

4. Does the express company issue money orders similar to 
those issued by the post office? What is the difference? 

5. Does the express company send packages to foreign coun¬ 
tries? How are such shipments made? 


TALK No. 14 by the Morale Officer on 
Keeping the Office Clean 

Every office should be kept clean. It matters not how old and 
musty the rooms may be, how worn and antiquated the furniture, 
or how busy the office force, the office must be kept neat and 
clean. The efficiency of the office manager and of his clerks can 
be judged by the appearance of the office. The office manager 
may have all sorts of rules and regulations, he may be instituting 
many fine systems, the clerks may be hard workers and experts 
in their respective lines, but unless neatness and cleanliness are 
the office habit, and unless every worker learns to love orderliness 
and spends a portion of his time each day in keeping things straight, 
something will go wrong, troubles of all kinds will arise, inefficiency 
will be the result. 

Neatness attracts, untidiness detracts. A clean office brings 
customers, a dirty one drives them away. An attractive office 
inspires confidence, an unattractive one causes distrust. The rela¬ 
tion between office appearance and quality of goods may not appear 
to be very close. But give a customer the choice and he will 
buy from the firm that practices cleanliness every time. The 
appearance of the office, of the store, of the clerks and salesmen 
and managers, makes impressions which cannot be erased. And 
often a bad impression cannot be discounted by cut prices—no 


KEEPING THE OFFICE CLEAN 159 

inducement can make the customer quite forget dirt and disorder. 

Time spent in preserving order is time saved. Ten minutes * 
spent in straightening out an office means a half hour more 
time for constructive work. Twenty steps spent in properly 
placing furniture or chairs or other office equipment means five 
hundred steps saved during the rest of the day. Keeping a tidy 
office or store does not take time, it saves time. Disorder breeds 
worry and trouble. When you put things in order you have 
removed the source of the worries. 

A bad-appearing office causes laziness. No one likes to work in 
dirt and disorder. Sooner or later clerks in such an office acquire 
the “Oh-well-what’s-the-use” expression. 

A clean office is an incentive to work. It inspires best efforts. 

It is a perpetual appeal to every occupant to put life into his work. 

It does away with unnecessary steps and motions, it helps every 
movement to count. 

There is no excuse for office untidiness, there is never a good 
reason for it. It is bad business. It is poor management. It 
prevents efficient work. It invites time-killing and inaccuracy. 
Disorder eats into the very life and core of office mechanism, it 
reaches out and hinders even the seemingly remote factors, it 
clogs the strongest wheels. 

An office boy when asked to sweep the office replied, “I ain’t 
no janitor.” This boy promptly lost his job. He had the wrong 
idea. Keeping the office clean is everybody’s job. The janitor 
merely starts the cleaning; the office manager, the cashier, the 
bookkeepers, the stenographers, and the office boys continue it 
throughout the day. Or rather, the janitor gives the office force 
a clean office to start with every morning; it is up to them to keep 
it that way. Every one must have a part, every one must help. 
If one clerk is slovenly and allows his part of the office to look 
disorderly, some one else must clean up for him or else the whole 
office will present a bad appearance. A good rule to follow is, 
clean as you go. This is the only way to keep things clean, and 
the only way to save unnecessary steps and work. Each one in 
the office should have his portion or “zone” to look after. There 


i6o FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 

should be a place for everything. The assistants in the office 
should not only have specific duties to perform in preserving office 
order, but they should consider it their duty to give a sort of 
general supervision to the appearance of things and at all times 
be quick to detect disorder and be ready to give it their immediate 
attention. 

It would be impossible to enumerate the many examples of com¬ 
mon office disorder and unsightliness, or to make suggestions to 
cover each case. Suffice it to say that the only hope of any office 
with regard to office cleanliness is to have workers who dislike 
dirt, who heartily detest being in the midst of disordered surround¬ 
ings, who simply cannot work unless everything is spic and span. 

If unsightly office conditions do not rub you the wrong way, if 
even the smallest disorders do not irritate you, there is something 
wrong, there is a part of your system which is built wrong, there 
is a trait that you need to cultivate. If it does not come natural 
with you to notice when things are out of place, strive hard to 
acquire an intense dislike for such conditions. 

As a rule women care more for tidiness than men, largely 
because of their training in home work. 

The best place for a man, therefore, to begin to cultivate a 
longing to keep things straight is at home. At home every one 
can have an opportunity to notice disorder and have a part in 
keeping things clean and neat. The young man who is in the 
habit of letting his mother and sisters clean up after him, who lets 
them do all the housework, who hasn’t the inclination to bear his 
part of the burden of household duties, is not the kind of man 
who will be on the alert for disorder in the office. After all, the 
spirit of helpfulness and of cooperation must live in the hearts and 
minds of the whole office force if the office is kept neat and clean. 
“Everybody help” must be the motto. Until such a spirit is evi¬ 
denced and such a motto is practiced, there will not be that clean¬ 
liness and orderliness which is absolutely essential for efficiency 
and progress. 


CHAPTER XV 


Stock and Supplies 

Taking care of the stock or supplies is an important duty in 
every concern. 

In the large retail and wholesale concerns, a number of men or 
boys, and sometimes girls, called stock clerks, do nothing but attend 
to stock. In general, the duty of stock clerk is to— 

1. Keep a record of the supply of each article on hand. 

2. Order new supplies when needed. 

3. Put new stock upon shelves or in bins upon arrival. 

4. Take new material out of stock for shipment or delivery to 
various departments. 

Keeping a Record of Stock 

Keeping a correct record of stock on hand is one of the impor¬ 
tant phases of stock-room work. To be out of any article when 
it is needed means a loss of time to clerks and perhaps officials of 
the firm, and may seriously impede the work. 

There are many systems in use for keeping records of goods 
on hand. The best of these is known as the “perpetual inventory” 
card system, which shows— 

1. The date of purchase. 

2. Quantity purchased and price. 

3. The quantity distributed to departments, and the amount 
on hand. 

The minimum amount to have on hand at any time of any 
particular article or form should be determined, and when this 
minimum is reached a new order should be placed immediately. 
This system acts as a perpetual inventory, as it always shows the 

161 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


162 

amount on hand, what the various departments are using, and 
how much they use in a certain period of time. This eliminates 
the possibility of ordering too large a quantity of a certain article. 
It gives the amount on hand at a glance, and does away with the 
old plan of taking an inventory at stated intervals. 

It is very important for the stock clerk to notify the Purchasing 
Agent, or whoever purchases supplies, as soon as the minimum is 
reached. This enables the person in charge to get in touch with 
several dealers and thereby obtain the best market price prevailing 
for whatever is needed. It sometimes happens that when the stock 
clerk neglects to inform the purchasing agent of a shortage, a 
rush order may have to be placed with some concern without 
securing estimates, and in this way the firm not only loses the 
advantage of having estimates on the material, but will have to 
pay extra money for a rush job, for most likely night work or 
overtime is involved in supplying the material quickly. 

Ordering New Supplies 

In large concerns, the purchasing agent does all the ordering 
or buying of supplies. In smaller concerns the manager or some 
clerk attends to this detail. In some instances where there is no 
purchasing agent, most of the goods are bought from some firm 
at a fixed price and at regular intervals so that the buying resolves 
itself down to a purely mechanical procedure. But in larger con¬ 
cerns where a purchasing agent is specially detailed to do the 
buying, the plan is to send out requests for estimates to at least 
four or five dealers on a specified quantity and quality of mate¬ 
rials. This puts each bidder on the same basis and no bids are 
accepted except on the articles listed on the estimate blank. When 
the estimates are all in the hands of the purchasing agent on any 
particular item, the order is usually placed with the lowest bidder, 
if delivery can be effected within a certain period, and if it is 
felt that the lowest bidder will live up to the specifications. It is 
good policy when placing orders to bear these last two items in 
mind, as it would not be good business judgment to place an order 


STOCK AND SUPPLIES 


163 

with a concern which will not be able to follow the specifications 
closely and make delivery on time. Moreover, care must be taken 
when delivery is made that the goods are up to specifications, as 
sometimes dealers put in a low bid and then endeavor to substitute 
an inferior article. It is also important before ordering new printed 
forms to ask the department using the forms if there are any 
changes to be made before printing the new lot. It may be in 
some cases that some one has seen a chance for improvement in 
the form, and this change should be incorporated in the new order. 
Forms should have some designation or number, as the ordering is 
thus simplified and the probability of mistakes lessened. This is 
usually printed on the form in some inconspicuous place in very 
small type. 

Putting New Stock Away 

Every article, every piece of stock, should have a place. The 
article used the most or sold the most should be in the most 
convenient place; and, of course, articles rarely used can go in the 
least accessible places. 

The first important duty of the stock clerk is to learn to distin¬ 
guish the different classes of goods—the special marks on them, 
and the place in the stock-room where they go. A good plan for a 
clerk just going into a stock-room is to make a diagram (at his 
convenience) of the room, showing where each separate article 
with its peculiar mark, if any, is placed, and then at night study 
the plan until it is thoroughly memorized. One boy who went to 
work with a furrier tried this plan and greatly surprised the whole 
force when they saw that on the third morning he knew the stock 
thoroughly. 

When new goods arrive they should be marked and placed 
immediately in their proper places, and not be allowed to accumulate. 

It is important when putting new materials away to be sure 
that old stock is in front or on top so that the old stock will be 
given out first. The most important thing to remember is to put 
goods in the right place, as much time may be wasted looking for 
goods improperly stored away. 


164 FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 

Assignments to Visit Stock-rooms 

It is very important to understand how stock is kept and a stock- 
room is managed, as you may go to work as a helper in a stock-room, 
and you should know what your duties are going to be. 

Visit several stock-rooms and do so if possible when the stock- 
keeper can be present to show you how the stock is handled. 

On these visits, answers to the following questions should be 
obtained. Write the questions in the notebook. 

1. In what form is the stock received? Who unpacks it? Who 
distributes it in the stock-room ? 

2. How does the stock-keeper know where to put each different 
article as it is unpacked? 

3. How does the stock-keeper know how much stock of a given 
article is on hand ? Does he look in a bin, or on a record card ? 

4. How does the stock-keeper report when any item of stock 
is low ? How does he know when any item ought to be reported ? 
Does he have an order to report when only a certain amount is 
left on hand? Does he go systematically over his stock each day 
or each week to see how his stock stands ? 

5. Who orders fresh stock? Does the man who places the 
orders ever see the stock-room, except by chance? On what does 
he depend? What would happen if a mistake were made? How 
does the stock-keeper know when fresh stock is coming in, and 
about when it may be expected ? 

Different firms may have different stock systems. Observe some 
of the different methods of keeping stock which are to be found 
in different lines of business and make notes on these, as they 
will be interesting for comparison. 

TALK No. 15 by the Morale Officer on 
How to Keep Busy When There’s Nothing to Do 

There are short periods in almost every office when there is 
nothing to do. Almost every young worker finds times when 
every task is done and when there seems to be no way of occupying 
his time profitably. The problem, then, that every junior clerk 


HOW TO KEEP BUSY 


165 

will have to confront sooner or later is this: “How can I keep 
busy when there’s nothing to do?” And he will find it a hard 
question to answer. But answer it he must if he would progress, 
if he would make use of his time and opportunities. 

There are some employees who welcome dull times, who are 
glad to be able to sit down and rest and take things easy. These 
words are not written for such employees. What they first need 
is a little “pep,” a little ambition, a desire to be doers and not 
loafers. What they need is to have the lazy streak taken out of 
them; what they need is a few injections of ginger. 

I am talking now to the men and women who really want to 
make use of every chance to get ahead, who take life seriously 
and realize that making good is a matter of their own individual 
concern. I am speaking now to those who want to keep busy, who 
welcome times when there is nothing to do, not in order that they 
might loaf but that they might occupy the spare time profitably 
picking up new things and learning to use their ingenuity. 

To keep busy when there’s nothing to do requires, first, therefore, 
willingness—extreme willingness. There must be no desire to 
kill time, no desire to rest during working hours, no inclination to 
take things easy. 

And, in the second place, one must be interested in his work. 
He must try to get pleasure out of putting forth effort. He must 
be able to put his mind on what he is doing. He must be able 
to concentrate his mind and energies upon his work. Thinking 
about the party the night before or a frolic for the following night 
won’t go. Planning for a big time on the next holiday, or imagin¬ 
ing what a great ball game he will have next Saturday won’t mix 
with business. His mind and heart must be upon his work. 

Thirdly, he must realize that his time during working hours is not 
his own, but his employer’s. He must consider it his duty as well 
as his privilege to keep busy if possible. He must feel that it is, 
for him to give the very best possible return for his salary. He 
must place no limit upon his efforts, even if he thinks that he is 
not being properly paid. 

He must try to save money for the firm. He must figure out 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


166 

ways of doing things in cheaper ways. He must think of the 
money spent as his own money, the stationery used as his own 
stationery, the supplies on hand as his own supplies. 

And then, most important of all, he must learn to plan ahead. 
This is the whole secret. In order properly to plan ahead, he 
must have clearly in mind the things about his business that he 
does not know, that he does not clearly understand. Some beginners 
work along for months without ever troubling themselves about 
the many strange things going on around them, without concerning 
themselves at all about the hundreds of facts and bits of informa¬ 
tion which they could easily learn and which would be most 
useful to them. They think, “Oh, all these things are too deep for 
me, what’s the use trying to learn them; besides, there’s too much 
of it, I’d never learn it in the world.” Unless a young worker 
has a good eye and an inquiring mind he will not notice the many 
things going on around him which he can easily catch on to or 
make note of for future study. The bright, anxious employee 
will, in the course of the day’s work, learn many valuable things 
which will enable him gradually to work himself up. He should 
not depend entirely upon “picking things up.” The proper thing 
for every beginner to do is to keep a notebook and pencil handy 
and put things down to study about later. He should put down 
everything, big and little. The great danger is in passing up the 
big things, the things higher up, simply because they seem too 
far above him. 

Of course, it is well to give especial attention to the near and 
more simple things. If you do not know what the next job above 
you is, find out and begin to learn that job; but do not confine 
your studies to this one job; learn as much as you can about the 
business generally. Don’t be afraid to teach some one else your 
work, for then when you are ready to take the work ahead of 
you, you will have some one take your place. 

Learn to keep on the alert. One may think, “Well, there’s 
nothing to do now, I’ll rest,” while another on the same job, but 
wide-awake and alert, will see many things which should be 
attended to. Make a list of small duties which can receive your 


HOW TO KEEP BUSY 167 

attention when your regular work is over and refer to it when 
necessary. Nearly every job is different, but the following list 
will give an idea of what is meant: 

Cleaning desks. 

Cleaning and filling fountain pens. 

Cleaning and changing desk pens. 

Filling ink wells. 

Changing blotters. 

Sharpening pencils. 

Tidying up the office. 

Seeing that every one is supplied with proper stationery and 
forms. 

Dusting. 

Cleaning the typewriter. 

And help others. Help the other workers, or the stenographer, 
or the bookkeeper, or any others who may need assistance. Study 
to make yourself useful. Some clerks and stenographers do not 
like to have beginners “fooling around/’ because too often in the 
past the beginners have not genuinely desired to be of service and 
only wished to pry into other people’s business and hamper the 
older clerks in their work. Don’t say, “May I help you?” But 
rather ask, “May I help you do that filing or billing?” And be 
sure that you know how to do it or your proffer may result in more 
harm than good. 

Even after you have tried to conform to all the above sugges¬ 
tions you are often going to find time hanging heavily on your 
hands. At least that is the experience of many beginners who are 
anxious to learn, who are energetic and full of enthusiasm. It is 
not always easy to keep busy when there’s nothing to do. It takes 
thought and ability to plan. It’s not easy, but any junior clerk 
can do it if he tries hard enough and uses his head. The reward 
is worth every effort, however. The beginner who manages to 
keep profitably busy is sure to attract attention, is sure to have his 
employer taking long looks at him when vacancies higher up occur. 

Learn to keep busy when there’s nothing to do. You’ll not only 
get a better job; you’ll be able to fill it. 


CHAPTER XVI 


Business Organization 

There are two general forms of business concerns, unincorpo¬ 
rated and incorporated. 

Unincorporated Concerns 

When an individual engages in business his entire property is 
liable for any and all debts which he may incur in the course of 
the business. For instance, if he fails in the grocery business, not 
only his store and its contents, but the house in which he lives and 
any money that he has in the bank must be drawn upon to pay his 
creditors. If, in order to get more money to run the business, he 
associates himself with a partner, each of them is liable for all the 
firm’s debts in exactly the same way as if he were trading indi¬ 
vidually. 

There are several kinds of unincorporated concerns: 

1. Individual trader, who conducts his business in person or 
through agents, without allowing any one else to share in the 
profits. 

2. Partnerships, in which two or more persons join capital. 
Each person shares in the profits and is liable for the firm’s debts. 

3. Joint-stock companies, which are large partnerships and 
which issue shares of stock like an incorporated firm, each mem¬ 
ber being individually liable for the debts of the company. 


Incorporated Concerns 

The object of incorporating a business is to enable the stock¬ 
holders to transfer their shares of stock to others without affect- 

168 


BUSINESS ORGANIZATION 


169 

mg the business; also to prevent the loss of private property or 
holdings in case of failure or bankruptcy. In order to incorporate, 
three shareholders are necessary. 

It is only when a corporation is formed that there is a distinct 
line drawn between business possessions and private property; 
and for any default or failure of the corporation, the property or 
finances of the individuals constituting the corporation are not 
liable. Hence the affairs of a corporation must be governed by 
law, which requires that its business be open to the public as to 
many features, such as capital, etc. To incorporate, the persons 
so desiring must file with the Secretary of State an incorporation 
certificate setting forth, in part, the following: 

1. Name of proposed corporation, as for example, the J. A. 
Arnold Co. 

2. Purpose for which the corporation is formed, as for exam¬ 
ple, the manufacture of furniture. 

3. The amount of capital stock (money to be paid in by the 
owners or stockholders for the operation of the business.) 

4. Number of shares or divisions making up the capital stock. 
For instance, if the capital stock is $100,000 and the number of 
shares 1000, each share would be worth $100. 

When an incorporated firm fails it files a petition of bank¬ 
ruptcy with the proper local court, giving a statement of assets 
and liabilities. The court then appoints a receiver, who takes 
charge of the business affairs of the concern and makes the best 
possible settlement with the creditors of the company. But he is 
not permitted to use any of the private funds or holdings of the 
individual stockholders in making such settlements. 

Declaring Dividends 

Dividends are the results of a successful and profitable business. 
Once every three months, six months, or a year, if the firm has 
made money, a dividend may be declared. For example, if the 
capital stock is $100,000 and the earnings for the year are $10,000 
a dividend of 10 per cent may be declared, this sum being dis- 


170 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


tributed among the stockholders, in amount commensurate with the 
amount of stock owned by each. The holder of fifty shares at 
$100 a share would receive 10 per cent of $5,000, or $500. At 
times all or a portion of the profits for a given period are added to 
the Surplus or Undivided Profits, no dividend being declared. 

Stocks and Bonds 

Capital stock represents the amount of money which is put into 
business as capital, for which shares are issued. This means 
that if the amount of money to be put into the business is 
$100,000 it has a capital stock of $100,000, and 1,000 shares of 
$100 each, say, are issued. Any one owning one or more shares 
of this stock is, therefore, a part-owner or stockholder of the 
business and participates in the dividends and other rights accruing 
to stockholders. 

You all know what Liberty Bonds are and what they were is¬ 
sued for. Well, oftentimes business concerns need or can make 
good use of additional money, just as Uncle Sam needed money 
to wage war. Bonds are therefore issued and sold to investors 
desiring to put their money into something which brings a fixed 
return. Let us say, for example, a construction company desires 
to buy $10,000 worth of new equipment. One way of securing 
this amount of money is to place on sale bonds, drawing interest 
at a specified rate, payable annually or semiannually, the principal 
or face of the bonds being payable in a certain number of years. 
The usual size of a bond is $1,000, but sometimes they are 
issued in $500 or $100 denominations. Bonds insure a certain 
fixed income because they draw interest at a specified rate, while 
income from stock is dependent upon the earnings of the com¬ 
pany. The owner of certain stock may go for years without re¬ 
ceiving a dividend. But if default is made in the payment of 
bonds (either interest or principal), the owner has recourse on 
the security ofifered; that is to say, through legal or court action 
he can sell enough of the equipment which has been given as 


BUSINESS ORGANIZATION 


171 

security to pay off the amount of his investment, since bonds are 
really shares in a mortgage. 

Bonds usually run many years before maturing, that is before 
the principal is due. As many purchasers have no desire to hold 
their bonds until maturity they endeavor to sell them. The buying 
and selling of bonds (as well as stocks) is greatly facilitated by 
the stock and bond markets organized in the various cities. By 
far the greater part of the stocks and bonds transactions are han¬ 
dled by the exchanges. The largest and most important stock 
exchange in this country is in New York. Sometimes over a 
million shares of stocks, besides many bonds, are bought or sold 
on the New York Stock Exchange in one day. 

Officers and Official Titles 

In most large commercial organizations there are the following 
officers or officials: 

President; who may or may not have direct control of the 
affairs of the business. Often the president, who is usually a 
heavy stockholder, has little contact with the daily affairs of the 
business, but as the head of the Executive or Managing Com¬ 
mittee shapes the general policy or conduct of the concern. 

Vice-President; whose relation may be somewhat similar to 
that of the President, but who exercises less power. He may be 
actively associated with the business as General Manager or in 
some similar capacity. 

General Manager; who has general supervision of the affairs 
of the entire business in all of its departments. The managers 
of the various departments are responsible to him for the conduct 
of the work entrusted to them. 

Sales Manager; who has charge of the selling end of the busi¬ 
ness. He directs the activities of the salesmen. 

Advertising Manager; who has charge of all advertising. Nat¬ 
urally the advertising man cooperates with the manager of the 
Sales Department in the general work of promoting sales. 

Purchasing Agent; who makes all purchases of stock. He must 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


172 

know the amount of goods on hand at all times, and make new 
orders when necessary. 

Credit Manager; who passes upon the financial standing of the 
purchasers. Among the means of ascertaining whether or not a 
buyer’s credit is good are— 

1. Personal investigations, interviews, and correspondence. 

2. Local banks. 

3. Local attorneys. 

4. Comments by salesmen. 

5. Commercial agencies. The two large agencies of this kind 
are Dun’s and Bradstreet’s. These agencies through organiza¬ 
tions covering the whole of the United States (and in fact some 
foreign countries) are enabled to furnish quick and accurate re¬ 
ports on the financial standing of business firms. They have a 
system of rating which indicates in a concise manner the worth or 
financial responsibility of each party listed. 

Office Manager; who has charge of the main business office 
with its clerks, bookkeepers, cashiers, etc. He is responsible for 
keeping the records straight and up-to-date. 

Shipping Manager; who has charge of the packing, marking, 
and shipping of goods, and sometimes the receiving of goods. 

Manager of Collections; who has charge of collecting money 
due, in cooperation with the Credit Manager, who often has 
charge of both functions. 

Cashier; who takes care of the daily receipts and disbursements. 

In addition there are bookkeepers, ledger clerks, stenographers, 
billing clerks, stock clerks, etc. 

Upon the size of the concern, of course, depends the number 
of officers, department heads, and clerks. In the small firms one 
may perform, the duties and functions of several officials men¬ 
tioned above. For example, one man may be office manager, 
credit manager, and collection manager. Moreover, the work and 
duties of the various department heads and of the clerks in those 
departments are so interlaced and so interdependent it is necessary 
that there be close cooperation and exchange of ideas at all times. 


BUSINESS ORGANIZATION 


173 


Miscellaneous Business Terms 

Discount: Goods sold at a discount are goods sold at a 
figure below the usual or marked price. Cash discount is a re¬ 
duction allowed at the time of payment, usually for cash in five 
or ten days from delivery. Trade discount is a reduction agreed 
upon at the time of sale, and has reference to the manner or time 
of payment. Dealers in the trade usually get a trade discount on 
all purchases, but individual purchasers do not. 

Depreciation: Depreciation is the shrinkage in the value 
of assets due to wear, tear, lapse of time, etc. 

Assignment on Business Organization 

First, make a list of the largest business concerns in the city in 
which you live, or at least of eight of the largest. Which are in¬ 
corporated? Which are individual men doing business without 
any associates in their own names? Which are partnerships of 
two or more business men together but not incorporated? 

Then make a list of some smaller business concerns which you 
know personally. This should include six individual men (or 
women) doing business alone, six concerns in which two or more 
persons are partners, and six small corporations. 

Visit some of the larger corporations. Write in your notebook 
the following questions and get answers to them from observation 
or questioning: 

1. Who is the President of the concern, where does he have 
his office, and what does he chiefly devote his time to? 

2. Who is the General Manager? Is he also Vice-President? 
What sort of office does the General Manager have? What are 
his duties? 

3. Who is the Sales Manager? What sort of office does he 
have? What are his duties? 

4. Is there an Advertising Manager ? What sort of office does 
he have? What are his duties? 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


U4 

5. Who is the Purchasing Agent? What sort of office does 
he have? What are his duties? 

6. Who is the Credit Manager? Where is his office? What 
are his duties? 

7. Is there a special Office Manager ? Where does he have his 
desk? What are his duties? 

8. Is there a Shipping Manager, or Shipping Clerk? Where 
does he have his office? What are his duties? 

9. Is the Cashier a man or a woman? Where is his office? 
What are his duties? 

Observe that in making a visit to a business house it is not 
necessary to speak to any of these officers, but only to be shown 
their offices and told by a clerk what their duties are. 

10. Inquire if the concern visited gives a trade discount. How 
much is the ordinary trade discount given? Are special trade 
discounts quoted? Is a cash discount allowed for payment within 
ten days of invoice? How much is it? If the time runs one or 
two days over the ten days allowed, is the cash discount still 
allowed ? 

11. Do the goods carried by the concern depreciate in value if 
not sold promptly ? Do the office furniture, fixtures, and buildings 
depreciate ? 


TALK No. 16 by the Morale Officer on 
Meeting People 

Almost every young office employee must at times meet cus¬ 
tomers and visitors and care for their needs. Upon the way in 
which you welcome and look after these callers depends some¬ 
what their opinion of your firm. An impatient, discourteous em¬ 
ployee can greatly prejudice the minds of visitors and clients, 
while a pleasant, agreeable, courteous one can make many friends 
for the firm. 

While each business house has its own peculiar method of 
caring for callers, there are a few general rules that will apply 


MEETING PEOPLE 


175 

anywhere, a strict adherence to which is necessary if the firm 
is to keep its customers and make new friends. 

When a caller comes in, approach with a polite manner and 
ask, “May I do something for you, please?” or words to that 
efifect. Then invite the person to be seated while you take in his 
card, or call the manager, as the case may be. Try not to keep 
visitors waiting. When you cannot attend to them at once, ac¬ 
knowledge their presence with a glance or nod or smile, or ask 
them to take a seat until you can talk to them. Do not become 
so interested in a conversation, or so absorbed in what you are 
doing that you fail to notice parties coming in. Business callers 
do not like to have to stand around unnoticed or uncared for. 

One of the duties of a “front-boy” or girl (men or women of 
years are usually employed in important institutions to receive 
visitors) is to direct callers to the proper person or department. In 
order to do this intelligently and correctly, you must be acquainted 
with the scope of work of each department and in many cases the 
duties of the various employees. If your place is a small one you 
should, of course, know the name of every one working there. If 
a large one, you should know the names of the officers and the 
heads of the departments. This knowledge will enable you to 
answer questions intelligently and direct people properly. 

An intelligent employee occupying a position of this kind can 
save the officials of the firm a great deal of time and worry. He 
should act as a kind of clearing house, directing the visitors 
properly and turning away those who are seeking selfish ends or 
wish to kill time, or who cannot be better served by those inside. 
Great care, considerable tact, and rare good judgment are needed. 
Care must be taken that offense is given no one. When a caller 
becomes insistent or irritable, get some older person to take care 
of him. 

Do not have one manner for the well dressed and another for 
/he shabby. Do not try to judge people by the clothes they have 
on. You will probably form an opinion, but don’t let that'opinion 
show in your manner. Treat all with courtesy and respect. 

If the visitor has no card, write his name on a paper to present 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


176 

to the desired person. If you happen to announce the caller’s 
name, call it distinctly. Say, “Mr. Smith is calling; shall I show 
him in?” Don’t go in and mumble something that cannot be 
understood. 

Do not try to get rid of callers without satisfying them fully. 
Don’t get impatient at their questions, though some of them may 
seem simple and uncalled for. Don’t talk or act as though you 
were conferring a favor on them. Let your whole attitude be 
that of willingness and desire to serve. 

Remember that you are officially representing the firm when 
you meet people at the door or railing. Treat every caller as 
though he were a valuable customer. 

Learn the names of the regular customers or visitors, welcome 
them with a smile, call their names, usher them in with a pleasant 
manner, and in proper cases take their hats and coats. But do 
not be too familiar or “fresh,” and do not hang around after 
conducting a visitor to the desired person. 

If you meet people properly, you can not only make friends 
for the firm, but you will have the favorable attention of outsiders 
whose good-will might be valuable to you. Remember: Be alert, 
courteous, patient, and anxious to serve at all times. 


CHAPTER XVII 


Real Estate * 

It should be the ambition of every person some day to own real 
estate. This will be possible if each will learn to save money. 
There is no satisfaction greater than that which comes from own¬ 
ing a portion, though small, of the earth’s surface. Land cannot 
be destroyed. It must stay where it is. A house may burn, but 
the land must remain. Moreover, if the property is well situated 
it will probably enhance in value as time passes, though if not well 
situated it may depreciate. 

The student should endeavor, therefore, to get a clear under¬ 
standing of the principal facts set forth in this lesson. Some of 
the material will prove valuable in the future as reference. 

What Real Estate Is—Authority for Title 

Real estate is land, together with the dwelling or buildings on 
it, whether it is a large area like the ranches in the West or a 
small city lot. Most of the land in the world is owned by indi¬ 
viduals or groups of individuals. Some large tracts of land are 
owned by various governments, as for example government or 
“public” lands in the western part of the country. In large un¬ 
settled regions like Africa, very large areas are still owned by 

* Some students may find this a difficult and heavy chapter. It is sug¬ 
gested that you should read the chapter over with a friend in business, 
asking questions to draw out any experience or observation and getting such 
illustrations and explanations as may seem necessary. 

The idea of property as developed in this chapter is the foundation of all 
modern business, and it is highly desirable that even the youngest persons 
in business should get very early a clear idea of what property means and 
how it is regarded by business men. 

177 



FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


178 

the various governments—England, France, Holland, etc. In 
time this land will be settled by persons who eventually, by paying 
relatively small sums and by conforming to certain rules with 
reference to its improvement and cultivation, will own the prop¬ 
erty. In other words, the government will, in view of certain con¬ 
siderations, allow the ownership to pass to these persons. The 
technical term for this change of ownership is “give title to.” 

Originally all property or land was owned by some government 
and in some such way as that described above came into the 
possession of individuals. When real estate is sold or when title 
or ownership passes to another, a record must be made of the 
transaction on the government records. More will be said of this 
matter of recording later. The point that it is desired to make 
clear here is this: authority for title in or ownership of real 
estate originates in the government. In all disputes relative to 
ownership of real estate the government decides the issue. The 
record of all changes of ownership is gone over, whenever a pur¬ 
chase is made, back even to the original sale by the government to 
some individual, in what is called an “abstract of title,” prepared 
by an abstract company. 

Distinction From Personal Property 

Personal property differs from “real” property or “real estate” 
in that it is something that is movable—something that can be 
easily moved from place to place. Examples of personal property 
are—cattle, horses, wagons, automobiles, household goods, furni¬ 
ture, stocks and bonds. 

Methods of Acquiring 

Real estate may be acquired by— 

a. Purchase. The sum of money given for a piece of property 
is called the “consideration.” 

b. Exchange. In this case the consideration may be other real 
estate or it may be personal property of some kind. 


REAL ESTATE 


179 


c. Gift. If one person gives real estate to another it is cus¬ 
tomary to specify a consideration of $1.00 or some such small 
sum. 

d. Bequest. The owner of real estate usually has a lawyer 
draw up a Will which states that upon the owner’s death the real 
estate shall go to a certain person or persons, usually the nearest 
relatives. Title is given by the court where the will is probated. 

Records 

When an individual sells real estate to another he gives the 
purchaser a paper known as a deed, which among other things de¬ 
scribes the property and states that for a specified consideration 
the owner named in the deed relinquishes or gives up all claim to 
the property and passes the ownership to the purchaser, whose 
name likewise is mentioned. 

This deed is duly recorded in the county record office by the 
county clerk. A small recording charge is made and the county 
seal is stamped upon the deed. It is very important that this 
record of sale be made. At some future time another party may 
lay claim to the property, and if a record of the sale has not been 
properly made on the government records the owner may have 
great difficulty in proving that he owns the property. 

In addition to the deed the purchaser receives from the owner 
what is known as an abstract, or abstract of title. The abstract 
is a record which is taken from the county records and sometimes 
shows every change of ownership that the piece of property has 
gone through. If the property is in a part of the country which 
has been settled a long time, the abstract may show only the sales 
that have taken place during the preceding twenty or thirty years. 
The first page or section shows how the land originally passed 
from the ownership of the government to that of some individual. 
Mention has already been made of how this usually happens. 
Then the abstract describes the transaction whereby this first 
individual owner passed the title or ownership on to some one 
else, whether by sale, gift, exchange, or bequest; and so on. It is 


i8o 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


very important that there be no break in the dates. That is, the 
ownership must be accounted for at all times. If there is a period 
of months or years for which the abstract does not show owner¬ 
ship, there is what is known as a “break” in the abstract and the 
title is not clear or good. In such a case it may be found that in 
some past sale the deed was not recorded. So the importance of 
making a record of each transaction is again seen. 

In each town there are usually abstract companies whose busi¬ 
ness it is to draw up abstracts. They have access to the county 
clerk’s records, and for a comparatively small charge draw up 
abstracts of title to property. They also bring abstracts up to 
date. That is to say, if “A” sells a lot to “B” he sends the 
abstract in his possession, together with the deed, to an abstract 
company, which has the deed recorded at the county clerk’s office 
and then places a final page in the abstract showing that the 
property is legally owned by “B.” If an abstract is not kept up 
to date it is necessary for the abstract company when requested to 
do so to go back to the old records and make a page for the 
abstract describing each transaction not shown therein. 

There are two courses that the purchaser of real estate can 
pursue in an endeavor to make sure that his abstract is a good 
one and that the question of his rightful ownership may never be 
raised. 

First, he may have his lawyer examine the abstract. The lawyer 
may find that certain points with reference to previous transfers 
of the property are not clear. He then goes to the court house 
and endeavors to clear them up. If satisfied, he approves the 
title for his client, the purchaser. If not, he describes what is 
wrong and the purchaser either refuses to take the property or de¬ 
mands that the seller straighten out the difficulties. The practice 
of having titles thus examined by individual lawyers is falling 
more and more into disuse on account of the greater security 
offered by the method described in the next paragraph. 

Second, he may take the abstract to what is generally known 
as a Title Company or a Title Guaranty Company. This com¬ 
pany has its own lawyers or title experts examine the abstract, 


REAL ESTATE 


181 

and if satisfied issues to the purchaser, for a certain charge, what 
is known as a Title Guaranty Policy. This title policy guaran¬ 
tees to the purchaser that the title is a good one and that if his 
ownership is ever questioned the Title Guaranty Company will 
at its own expense contest the matter in the courts. Should the 
company lose the case in the courts, and it is proved that the 
property belongs to some one else, the company must reimburse 
the holder of the title policy for the money expended on the 
property, or the face of the policy. 

Taxes 

One of the chief sources of revenue for the state and local 
governments is the taxes levied on real estate. Taxes are based 
upon the value of property. This value is usually determined or 
assessed by a county official, and the tax is expressed in terms of 
so many cents on one hundred dollars of valuation. 

The kinds of taxes, among others, are— 

1. City. 

2. County. 

3. State. 

4. School district. 

5. Paving or local benefits. 

To date, there is no Federal Government tax on real estate; that 
is to say, the national government derives no income from a tax 
on real estate of any kind in the United States. 

The city tax goes to pay city officials and city government 
expenses. Likewise, the county and state taxes help maintain the 
county and state governments. The school district tax is usually 
assessed in small towns and communities which have no city 
government, where funds are needed with which to run the schools. 
Special taxes for paving and other benefits, such as sewer exten¬ 
sions, are assessed in many towns and cities. In most cases a 
special vote is taken to ascertain whether or not a majority of the 
real estate owners desire the tax assessment. 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


182 


Rents and Leases 

Owners of real estate often rent or lease their property—the 
land, together with the dwellings, store, or office building on it— 
to others. The owner is then known as the “landlord/’ while the 
occupant is the “tenant.” Dwelling houses are usually rented—that 
is, the landlord receives a payment for occupancy from the tenant. 
Renting and leasing agreements for a period of less than a year 
are often oral or verbal, while those for a year or longer are usually 
written. Leases ordinarily run for a year or more. Most stores, 
office buildings, etc., are leased. The rent obtained for a house 
should, of course, not only be sufficient to pay for all taxes, insur¬ 
ance, up-keep, etc., but should in addition yield the landlord a fair 
profit or return for his investment. City property is usually rented 
or leased by the month or year. Farms are rented by the year or 
season, the landlord’s customary return or profit being a third or a 
fourth of each crop—cotton, corn, etc. Ranches are rented or 
leased at so much an acre. 

In renting or losing agreements it is usually specified that the 
owner shall pay for all necessary repairs. If a renter or tenant 
fails to live up to his agreement to pay the landlord at regular 
intervals for the privilege of using or occupying property, he can 
be forced by law to vacate. At the expiration of a lease the 
landlord is entitled to occupy the property. If for any reason 
the tenant does not vacate, the landlord can through proper legal 
proceedings put him out, or “evict” him. 


Insurance 

There are several kinds of insurance as applied to dwellings or 
other buildings. Among them are— 

a. Fire. 

b. Liability. This applies particularly to business property. 

c. Storm or tornado. 

d. Hail, etc. 


REAL ESTATE 


183 

The amount of insurance on a house should never exceed the 
value of the house. That is to say, if a house is worth $10,000 
it cannot or should not be insured for more than $10,000. It is 
customary for insurance agents when writing insurance covering 
costly buildings to scatter the risk by writing out policies in several 
different companies. Should such a building be destroyed by fire, 
the loss to one company is then not so heavy. 

Policies are most often written for a period of one year, three 
years, or five years. They must be renewed before expiration if 
the owner desires to have protection. It is customary for insurance 
companies to notify the owner a few days before expiration in 
order that he may renew the policy before it expires. 

The amount of the premium on each one thousand dollars’ worth 
of insurance depends, first, upon what is known as the key rate 
for each particular city or locality, and second, upon the construc¬ 
tion of the building and the extent of the special arrangements 
for protection against fire. For example, a building of fireproof 
construction costs less to insure than a frame building. The 
amount of the key rate is based upon the general fire protection 
furnished by the city or locality—ample water, with adequate fire 
plugs, properly placed, and efficient up-to-date fire-fighting appa¬ 
ratus, all make for a low key rate. 

When an insured building partially burns, the insurance company 
sends an adjuster to ascertain the extent of the loss, or in case of 
total loss, to verify the fact; and settlement is made accordingly 
with the owner. 

Another important function performed by insurance on property 
will be described under “liens.” 


Liens 

As to origin, the two most important kinds of liens are vendor’s 
lien and mechanic’s lien. 

If “A” sells “B” a house and lot for $5,000 and “B” pays only 
$2,500 down, “A,” who is the seller or vendor, retains a vendor’s 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


184 

lien, which is a paper stating that “B” still owes “A” $2,500 and 
that if he does not pay “A” the $2,500 in a specified time the 
property will revert to “A.” 

The time specified is usually from one to five years, and the note, 
or promise to pay, which “B” gives “A” draws interest at a certain 
per cent, usually from four per cent to eight per cent, payable 
annually or semiannually. 

A mechanic’s lien is a lien held by a contractor or builder 
covering the amount of money due the contractor by the owner. 
If “C” builds a house for “A” he retains for a certain time the 
right to get a mechanic’s lien on the house until “A” pays him in 
full for constructing the house. 

As a priority, there are “first liens,” “second liens,” “third liens,” 
etc. To illustrate: 

If “A” sells a house and lot to “B” for $5,000 and “B” pays 
$2,000 down, “A” retains a “first lien” on the property of $3,000. 
Suppose “B” after paying “A” an additional $2,000 sells the prop¬ 
erty to “C” for $5,000, “C” paying $1,000 down. There will then 
be a “first” and a “second” lien on the property. “A” will hold a 
first lien of $1,000, the amount still due him, while “B” will hold 
a second lien of $3,000, the amount he has invested. “C” will 
have a thousand-dollar interest, or “equity,” in the property, as 
this is the amount he has paid to “B.” 


“A’s” First Lien. $1,000 

“B’s” Second Lien. 3,000 

“C’s” Interest, or “Equity”. 1,000 


Total. $5,000 

Should “C” sell to “D” a third lien may be created, which is 
held by “C.” 

Should “D” fail to make his payments, necessitating the selling 
of the property at public auction by the proper public officials, “A,” 
the holder of the first lien, would first receive the $1,000 due 







REAL ESTATE 185 

him. Then “B,” the holder of the second lien, would receive second 
consideration, and so on. 

A Mortgage: If “A,” the owner of property worth $10,000, 
borrows $3,000 from “B” for the purpose, say, of improving 
the property, he deeds the property to “B” as security for the 
loan. This deed is called a mortgage or trust deed. When the 
$3,000 loan is paid, ownership of the property automatically 
reverts to “A” according to a clause contained in the mortgage. 
A mortgage is a form of lien. Mortgages and other liens bear 
interest and may be bought and sold. 

A first lien or mortgage is not usually considered a good invest¬ 
ment if it represents more than fifty per cent of the value of the 
property involved. 

The time which a lien or a mortgage is to run, usually from one 
to five years, may be extended upon consent of the owner or holder. 

A house on which there is a lien or mortgage should be insured 
against fire, the amount of the insurance being at least as large as 
the first lien or mortgage. The insurance is made payable to the 
owner of the lien until such time as the lien is paid, or, as it is 
technically expressed, until such time as all encumbrances are 
removed. 


Assignment on Real Estate 

Perhaps your parents own their own home, or own pieces of 
business property. In such cases there will be deeds and abstracts 
of title, but as these are very valuable documents they will be stored 
in safety deposit vaults or some such place and can be seen only 
through making special arrangements. 

First, inquire whether your parents own any real estate, where 
the real estate is, and where the deeds and abstracts are, and under 
what conditions it would be possible to see these. 

Examine if you can some deeds or abstracts. A deed to a small 
home lot would be best, for then you can compare the description 
of the property in the deed with the actual ground and see how 
the property is identified. There is usually a plat of the neighbor- 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


186 

hood in the abstract on which the lot number or the like may be 
found, and the corners of the property usually have been marked 
by surveyors by iron stakes, and these may be found and examined. 
The front of the lot may then be measured, to see if the measure¬ 
ment corresponds to the description in the deed or in the abstract. 
No attention need be paid to all the other legal complications in a 
deed or abstract. 


Visit to a Real Estate Dealer 

Make an appointment to visit a real estate dealer. Some one 
familiar with the business should be prepared to answer questions, 
which have first been written in your notebook as follows: 

1. What small home have you for sale? What is the price? 
Must all the money be paid in cash? Is there a mortgage on the 
place now? Is there an abstract of title? 

2. If this house were purchased and rented, what rent would 
it bring ? What are the taxes on it each year ? What would be the 
cost of making repairs on it? What would be the commission of 
the real estate agent? 

3. If this property were bought and rented, the total rent for 
a year would be the total income, from which the expenses would 
have to be paid, such as taxes, repairs, commission, etc. If there 
is a mortgage, interest on the mortgage would have to be paid. 
After these expenses have been deducted from the total rent, it 
will be possible to see what profit is earned by the “equity,” or the 
money that actually has to be paid in addition to the mortgage. 
The danger of having the house vacant because it cannot be rented 
at some time, and of having it depreciate in value in the course of 
a number of years, should also be taken into consideration. 

4. The real estate dealer should have a lease form for renting. 
How does it look ? What are the first words ? What would happen 
if the rent were not paid promptly? 

5. The real estate agent is usually agent for some insurance 
companies and obtains insurance on request. For how much 
ought the house you live in to be insured ? or the house you ask the 


STARTING YOUR CAREER 


187 

real estate dealer about buying? Who pays the insurance on a 
rented house? When a house is rented, how about the insurance 
on the personal property, such as clothes, furniture, etc., which the 
tenant has in the house ? 

6. When a house is rented, who pays the water tax? For gas? 
For electric light? How are these things arranged? 

7. If you should accidentally break a window in a rented house 
or apartment, who would have to pay the cost of putting in new 
glass ? 

Pay a visit to the office of an abstract company and see how 
abstracts are made and look at a number. Also if possible visit 
the recorder or register of deeds at the county building and look 
at some of the big books in which various plats, deeds, and mort¬ 
gages are recorded. It would be interesting to go to the offices 
of a real estate mortgage company and find out how money may 
be borrowed on a mortgage on a certain piece of property, say the 
home in which one lives. Savings banks also usually have a real 
estate mortgage department. 


TALK No. 17 by the Morale Officer on 
Starting Your Career 

Whether you are occupying your first position or not, you are in 
a sense starting your career. Perhaps you have to a great extent 
left behind you school and its life, and are now preparing to enter 
the great school of business. If you were earnest and diligent in 
school, you will no doubt continue to be so in your work. If you 
were not successful in your school life, there will have to be a 
decided change in your make-up if you make good in business. 
Many young people get tired of school, become lazy and indifferent, 
and decide to quit and go to work. They imagine that working 
will be different, that in a job they will not have to apply themselves 
so diligently, in short, that making good in business will be easy. 
Many boys, in particular, go to the employment agencies for jobs 
—on the run from school. They failed in school; they couldn’t 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


188 

apply themselves; they could not stand the test. But they think 
that when they get a position all their troubles will be over; they 
think they will work hard and win a place for themselves in the 
business world. But, sad to say, few such boys make good in 
business. The reason is this: The same qualities of perseverance 
and pluck are necessary to make good in a job as in school. 

If, therefore, your record at school was not of the best, make 
up your mind right now that a change must take place in your 
nature if you expect to make good in the world. You must know 
right now that hard work, persistent effort, and willingness to 
sacrifice time and pleasure are the qualities which alone will win. 

There is nothing you cannot accomplish in business if you but 
try hard enough. The world is before you. The opportunity is 
yours. Are you going to make use of it? 

Are you going to succeed? Or will you.fail? You alone can 
answer, and you can answer it either way you choose. 

If you are that kind of person that would rather have a good 
time than leave a good day’s record behind, you will fail. 

After all, the young people who really have the best times are 
those who are making good, who are getting somewhere, who feel 
at the close of each day that they have made progress, that they 
are nearer the goal they have set for themselves. No one is happier 
than the one who is succeeding, and none is so miserable as the 
person who is careless and indifferent, and shuffles along in a lazy 
sort of way, trusting to luck that things will “break right.” If 
you want to live a happy; successful life, keep busy. If you want 
to have a successful business career, start now on the right track; 
mean business. 

Are you going to be a success or failure? Which will it be? 
Answer the question right now to yourself. If your answer is 
“A Success” it means that you are going to buckle down to 
business immediately and do your best. It means that in any 
position you will make good and earn advancement. It means that 
you are going to show that you have backbone and stickability. 


TO GIRLS 


189 


TALK No. 18 by the Morale Officer 
To Girls * 

If you find it necessary or advisable to enter the business world 
there are several facts which you should bear in mind. The 
purpose of this lesson is to call attention to these and to make some 
practical suggestions which should prove helpful. 

During the past few years the opportunities for girls in business 
have increased tremendously. Moreover, the attitude of business 
men toward women workers has undergone a vast change. 
Formerly the business activities for girls and women were restricted 
to a very narrow field. It was thought that they could do only a 
few simple things, and that they had no business trying any others. 
Now, they are not only accepted but are welcomed in almost every 
line of business endeavor. Then, too, for a long time a woman 
could only hope to progress so far and no further. But as each 
day passes we find more and more women and girls occupying 
positions of responsibility. 

Do not think, however, that all is as yet plain sailing. You will 
still find a good many business men who will not recognize the 
capabilities and possibilities of women workers. And you will 
find some who purposely or unthinkingly limit the progress and 
opportunities of their women employees; who think that girls 
can do only certain work and that they must not be permitted to 
try the bigger and better positions. 

It might be well to tell you just why some business firms take 
this attitude. Perhaps the principal reason is prejudice—unwill¬ 
ingness to recognize that their girl and women employees are 
capable of growth, are capable of occupying the higher places. 
But there are other reasons for this attitude, which have to do 


* This chapter is intended to help young women succeed in business, and 
also for the study of boys and young men, because they will be called on to 
work with girls, or to employ them, or to manage them in an office—or be 
managed by them. They should therefore understand the strong and weak 
points of women in business. 



FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


190 

with certain failings and shortcomings of some of the girl and 
women workers themselves. 

In the first place the mental attitude of the girl who starts out in 
the business world is not always the correct one. She should, of 
course, expect her employer to be courteous and regard her as a 
lady, but at the same time she should not expect too many special 
courtesies and concessions just because she is a girl. She should 
not take the attitude “I am a girl and therefore I can’t be expected 
to measure up to the requirements laid down for the men and boys. 

I should have special treatment and special consideration.” If a 
girl has this idea when she goes to work she will not only fail, 
but she will incur the displeasure of both her employer and her 
fellow-employees. They will see very clearly that she is not 
willing to “pkiy the business game” in the regular way. 

In the second place, many girls go to work with the thought in 
their minds that they will work only for a few years, and for this 
reason it is not at all necessary for them to put their whole thought 
and energy into their work or endeavor to learn and get ahead. 
They are content to take things a little easy and make no effort to 
qualify for better positions. Business men quickly sense this 
attitude, and often they get the idea that all girls are like that and 
hence offer no particular inducements to any of their women 
employees to earn advancement. 

Regardless of whether you are going to work for one month or 
five years or ten years, go about your work as though you are in 
business to stay—as though you hope eventually to know all there 
is to know about the business and occupy an important place. 
Don’t get the idea that because you may get married in two or 
three years there is no necessity for putting your best thought and 
effort into your work, or for trying to win promotion. Don’t be 
content to handle a routine job. One reason why so many posi¬ 
tions of this kind are occupied by women is that they do not care 
to put forth the mental effort necessary to learn other things and 
qualify for more important work. 

Right along in this connection many girls shirk or do not seek 
responsibility. They like to have certain specific routine tasks to 


TO GIRLS 


191 

perform, and dislike to be given work that calls for initiative and 
the exercise of extra mental effort. Many business men have 
observed this tendency in their women employees and as a result 
they cease trying to put additional rsponsibilities upon their 
shoulders. Here, too, many employers get the erroneous idea that 
all girls and women shun responsibility and they automatically 
close the doors of opportunity to the ambitious ones. It, therefore, 
takes extra effort on the part of girls who are wide-awake and 
active, and anxious to make progress, to convince their employers 
that they desire to do more than make good in one job, that they 
want responsibility and opportunities to show initiative. 

A girl can be aggressive and ambitious without appearing 
“mannish.” She can be eager to learn and make progress without 
losing any of her maidenly dignity. She can develop initiative and 
the ability to do executive work without lowering herself one iota 
in the esteem of her employer and fellow workers. Rather, these 
attributes will elevate her in the esteem of all who know her. These 
qualities will only serve to increase their respect and admiration 
for her. 

There are three terms that describe a good many girls in 
ousmess. They are : “temperamental,” “sentimental,” and “touchy.” 
The first refers to a failing of some girls who are too quickly 
discouraged, who allow themselves to become upset and nervous 
over small things. They seem to lack the ability to forget or 
disregard little, unimportant happenings. They seem to lack 
smoothness and tranquillity in the pursuance of their daily tasks. 

As to the term “sentimental,” there is a lot of sentiment in 
business and there should be. But many girls have too much of it, 
or, rather, it is too much on the surface. Most business dealings 
and relationships require coolness and poise, require clear thinking 
and unbiased judgment. Business men and their employees must 
see straight and think straight. Their business relationships are 
usually pleasant, but they must be to the point. Conducting a 
successful business against keen competition is a matter of matching 
wits with clever minds. Time is an important element and the 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


192 

business that evolves short cuts and superior methods will forge 
ahead. Please bear in mind no intimation is given that because 
sentiment is in the background there need be anything unscrupulous 
or crooked in the conduct of the business. Successful business men 
as a rule are creatures of sentiment, but the sentiment in them lies 
deep, and during business hours they seldom have occasion to 
bring it to the surface in an ostentatious way. It will be found 
that the men who contribute most to charity and worthy enterprises, 
and who subscribe heavily to the government loans, are men who 
are businesslike, but not cold or unpleasant, in the conduct of 
their business. And on the other hand, many people who “gush 
over” with sentiment all the time, who carry their “hearts on their 
sleeves,” are unsuccessful in their business efforts and are thus 
unable to back up their sentimental impulses in a substantial way. 

Now, about being “touchy.” Don’t be too quick to take offense 
at little things. Don’t “carry a chip on your shoulder” and be too 
quick to sense discourtesies or imagine that you are being discrimi¬ 
nated against. In spite of the best efforts of all, unpleasant things 
come up in the course of one’s work. Don’t be too sensitive about 
these disagreeable things and don’t be too quick to take offense if 
your attention has been called to a mistake. Think how you can 
avoid a similar error and then dismiss it from your mind. Don’t 
dwell upon it and imagine that your whole future is blasted. As 
the boys would say, “Be a good sport.” 

Another important thing. Get acquainted with all of the girls 
with whom you are thrown in contact and keep on good terms 
with them. Don’t pick out one or two girls to chum with and 
neglect to cultivate the friendship of the others. Don’t get into 
a certain clique or set, for before long your little group will be 
“the only one” and differences and petty animosities will soon 
arise. There will be whisperings and knowing looks and glances, 
and trouble of one kind or another will follow. All of which will 
serve to lessen your efficiency and hurt your progress. 

Most employers are inclined to be rather lenient with their 
women employees in the matter of hours of work. They often 


TO GIRLS 


193 


favor them with reference to getting to work in the morning and 
leaving at night. As a result many girls come to consider that 
they have special rights in this matter. Don’t make this mistake. 
Don’t be too ready to take advantage of this leniency. Don’t get 
in the habit of “quitting on the dot,” giving little or no consideration 
to the state of the work. Always signify your willingness to work 
overtime if necessary and don’t feel that you just must get off 
at a certain hour. Very often some one has to stay, so why 
shouldn’t vou? 

j 

Take an interest in your work and in the success of your firm. 
Remember that a part of the responsibility is yours, and that it is 
just as much your duty to contribute to the general effort toward 
efficiency and success as any one’s. In every concern there are 
some who supply the momentum, the power which moves the 
business machine along, and there are some who serve merely as 
wheels which the others must keep going. Resolve to be more than 
a wheel or a cog. Make up your mind to furnish some of the 
power. Don’t be content to work merely according to directions, 
to be pushed along. Do some of the pushing yourself. 

And should you win an important position, as an executive, say, 
in charge of a department, be careful to exercise your authority 
in a tactful manner. It is a rather common complaint of employers 
that women when placed in charge of others are inclined to be 
austere, unnatural, and “bossified.” Attempting to be businesslike, 
they greatly overdo it and incur the displeasure and resentment 
of those under them. Very often they do not seem to know how 
to develop teamwork, a very important factor in the success of 
any department or of any business. Regardless of the importance 
of the position to which you attain, endeavor to be natural and 
unaffected at all times. 

Your success in business will be very largely up to you. Here 
and there are firms where women are not placed on an equal footing 
with men as far as opportunities for advancement are concerned, 
but for the most part your progress will be governed entirely by 
your ability, your willingness to put your best into your work, your 


194 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


constant endeavor to learn all you can, and your display of the 
greatest of all business qualities—INITIATIVE. 


TALK No. 19 by the Morale Officer on 
Small Duties of the Office Assistant 

1. Blotting: Be careful to raise the blotter straight up off 
the paper, else the writing will be blurred. Blotters are cheap— 
do not use one too long, especially if much continuous blotting is 
done, as it will get too wet to use and will make ink marks of its 
own upon the paper. 

If you are blotting for some one who is signing letters, blot 
and remove each letter quickly and in such a way that he will not 
be kept waiting. If you do it just right he can be signing all the 
time. Avoid the use of fancy blotters. As a rule they are not 
as good as the plain blotters, and, moreover, if you use a blotter 
that is glazed upon one side you may make the mistake of using 
the wrong side, which instead of blotting will blur. 

2. Fountain Pen: You should, as soon as possible, learn 
about how long the boss, or others, write with one pen full of 
ink, in order that you may always fill them before they run en¬ 
tirely dry. In filling be careful not to spill ink. Don’t fill a pen 
over some one's desk—go where it will not matter so much should 
you happen to run the pen over. In case of a self-filling pen be 
careful not to press the bulb or turn the pen so as to cause the 
ink to run out before you have adjusted the pen properly. Always 
wipe the pen off before returning it to the owner. Occasionally 
you should clean the pen by running water through it to wash out 
all ink and dirt that may have hardened inside. 

3. Pencils: Try to keep all the pencils in the office sharp¬ 
ened. There may be a number on each desk. Be sure that each 
person in the office has at least one sharpened pencil on his desk 
all the time. In sharpening, if you use a knife do not make too 
long a sharpening surface or too long a lead. And do not make 
the lead too pointed. Do not sharpen pencils where the lead can 


SMALL DUTIES OF THE OFFICE ASSISTANT 195 

fly about the room and blow into people’s faces, or fly about over 
the floor. And particularly be careful in sharpening indelible 
pencils, as the lead makes bad stains. 

4. Ink Wells: Keep the ink wells clean. Occasionally 
you should empty all the ink out of them, if possible, and clean 
the well thoroughly. But almost every day you should take a wet 
rag and remove the ink stains from the top of the wells. Don’t 
let the ink stands go dry. Refill them often. 

5. Desks: In some offices the office boy or junior clerk is 
supposed to keep the desks clean, and in others he is not allowed 
to touch them. You will have to follow somewhat the rules of 
the office where you work. If you find that you are expected to 
keep the desks straight, observe the following: Be careful with 
the contents, lest you misplace a valuable paper. Return every¬ 
thing to its original place when you are through. In the case of 
a roller top desk, be sure to clean the corners out thoroughly. 
If large desk blotters are used, put in a new one when you are 
cleaning if one is needed. Never interrupt the boss or others for 
the purpose of cleaning a desk. Always undertake this job when 
you know that you will not interfere with them in the least. 

6. Mail (incoming) : In some offices it is the duty of the 
office boy to distribute the mail—sometimes after the boss or some 
one else has assorted it, sometimes before. You will, of course, 
have to follow custom, but if you have to distribute it at all, al¬ 
ways try to do so as soon as possible after the mail arrives—do 
not let it lie around. Be very careful in your handling of all mail 
matter. Don’t be too curious about it yourself. You do not have 
to know where each letter comes from. 

It may be your duty to open the letters and place the contents 
upon some one’s desk. Always use a letter-opener for this purpose, 
being careful not to tear or cut the contents in any way. Be 
careful not to leave any of the contents in the envelope. In case 
of several enclosures, arrange them neatly and fasten them to¬ 
gether with a clip. 

7. Making Carbon Copies: Do not wrinkle carbon paper, 
as a wrinkle in the carbon will always show on the copy. Always 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


196 

be sure that your carbon is turned the proper way, as it is very an¬ 
noying and troublesome to have to recopy when it is discovered 
that the carbon was turned wrong. In typewriting be particularly 
careful. 

8. Receiving and Receipting: Observe the following: 
Never receipt for anything until you are sure that it is meant for 
your firm. Never sign the receipt until you have checked off the 
articles yourself. Do not take other people’s word for it or you 
may get into trouble. 

9. Typewriter: The typewriter should be oiled and brushed 
every two or three days. The type should be cleaned with benzine 
at least once a month. Do not use too much oil, as it will tend 
to clog the workings of the typewriter instead of making them 
run easier. The stenographer will probably be glad to have you 
attend to her machine. Do the work at lunch when she will 
not be interrupted. Always make a good job of it, making sure 
that each part is working properly. When a new ribbon is or¬ 
dered, put it on the machine yourself unless it is brought by a 
special man. Keep plenty of clean rags on hand. Cheesecloth 
is commonly used. 

10. Pens: Put new pens in the penholders whenever 
needed. Be sure to give each man the kind that he likes. 

11. Making Change: When called upon to make change, 
observe the following rule: Always count up or add—never 
subtract. For instance, if a party is paying you for a $2.65 pur¬ 
chase with a five dollar bill, hand him a dime (making $2.75), 
a quarter (making $3.00), and two one dollar bills (making 
$5.00). If this simple rule is always observed you will never 
make a mistake. 

12. “Dirty” Work. Don’t be afraid of getting your hands 
soiled—but don’t let them stay dirty. 

13. Electric Lights: Keep in mind the regulation of the 
lighting system. Do not let more lights burn than are necessary. 
On the other hand, on dark days or days when it becomes sud¬ 
denly dark, see that there is plenty of light. Keep the globes 
clean. Sometimes the janitor forgets to clean them. 


SMALL DUTIES OF THE OFFICE ASSISTANT 197 

14. Ventilation: Learn to ventilate the offices properly. 
Learn to work the transoms, shades, and windows, and know 
just what to do to keep the proper temperature. Of course do 
not fail to consult the comfort and desires of others in the office, 
as they might think you selfish or “fresh” if you went ahead 
without consulting them. 


FINAL CHAPTER 


Help for Students to Secure Positions 

Perhaps only a small per cent of the persons completing this 
course will have to secure positions. 

It is important that each student secure the right kind of em¬ 
ployment. By right kind of employment is meant— 

a. A position with a firm that is known to deal fairly with its 
employees. 

b. A position where there is opportunity to learn, and where 
increased ability and added experience are rewarded in due time 
by promotion and increase in salary. 

c. A position for which the student’s natural aptitude and in¬ 
clination best fit him. 

All three points are important, but the last particularly. 

Unfortunately, up to the present time little data has been gath¬ 
ered on the qualifications which best fit persons for positions 
with the various kinds of businesses. That there are widely 
divergent personal needs for distinct types of work is admitted, 
but just what these are has not been put down in usable form. 

It is suggested, therefore, that some business friend may be 
willing to give some thought to this matter. He should attempt 
by carefully observing and studying you, to form a judgment as 
to the kind of position or business you are best fitted for. The 
haphazard employment methods now in use by many employment 
agencies and by some business concerns not only do an injury to 
business but are unjust to the young workers, many of whom fail 
because they get the wrong start. 

198 


HELP TO SECURE POSITIONS 


199 

At present, there are many ways in which young people secure 
positions. Some are sent to positions through school agencies; 
some hear of jobs; others get them through commercial agencies. 

1. When you hear of a vacancy or when you are sent to a 
position by some friend or agency, get there as quickly as possible. 

2. Present a neat and clean appearance. Don’t dress up in 
your Sunday clothes, but watch the following points: 

a. Be sure that your hair is well combed; 

b. Brush your clothes thoroughly; 

c. Shine your shoes; 

d. Be sure that your face and neck and ears and hands 

are clean; 

e. Trim and clean your finger nails; 

f. Wash your teeth thoroughly. 

3. Upon reaching the place of business inquire for the person 
whose name you have. If no name, or special department has 
been given you, ask for the person who has charge of employment. 

4. Look pleasant. Smile a little even if you have to force it. 
When you come into the presence of your interviewer say “Good 
morning” or “Good afternoon.” If you have a letter of introduc¬ 
tion of some kind, hand it to him with some such remark as, 
“I have come from such-and-such an agency or person. Here is 
my introduction.” Be sure not to hand him your letter without 
saying a word. 

5. While waiting do not fidget. Wait quietly and respectfully 
(not too near him) until he asks a question. Then, speaking dis¬ 
tinctly, answer his questions as intelligently as possible. Don’t 
mumble. It is better to speak too loud than not loud enough. 
Don’t forget this. 

6. Look your interviewer in the eyes. Don’t gaze at the 
ceiling or the floor—look him straight in the eyes. 

7. Try to impress your interviewer with the fact that you want 
the place and that you can make good if given an opportunity. 
It is not necessary to brag about yourself or assert over and over 
again that you are sure that you can make good if given a chance. 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


£00 

Your looks and manner will take care of that. The look out of 
your eyes, the general manner of handling yourself, the sound of 
your voice—these will mean much more to him than the words 
you say in self-praise. You can look anxious, you can look suc¬ 
cessful, you can look trustworthy, you can look determined, and 
these will come nearer getting you the place than either your 
recommendation or your appeals to be given a chance. 

8. You will probably be told one of two things: “We will let 
you know” or “We want you.” If the former, thank him for his 
consideration and say that you hope that he will consider you 
favorably. If the latter, thank him and ask him when you may 
start to work, indicating your willingness to start immediately if 
desired. 


The First Day—How to Keep a Position 

It has often been said, “.The first impressions are the lasting 
ones.” This is certainly true with regard to a new employee. 
The manner in which you go about your work the first day may 
largely determine your future. Here are some hints: 

1. Show extreme willingness. 

2. Be serious-minded but cheerful, put your mind on your 
work, but be on the alert ready for opportunities to learn and be 
of service. 

3. You will doubtless be kept pretty busy with many strange 
duties, which will of course prevent your “taking time off” to 
learn, but there are certain things you should try to pick up the 
first day. 

a. Fix firmly in your mind the name and address of your 

firm. (Later learn the branch houses, if any.) 

b. Learn the telephone number. 

c. Learn the name of the manager and as many others as 

possible. 

d. Learn the location of the nearest railroad station, sub¬ 

way, “L,” telegraph and telephone stations. 


HELP TO SECURE POSITIONS 


201 


e. Try to get a comprehensive idea of your prescribed 
duties. 

4. Begin to look for opportunities for doing things without 
being told, and for being of service to the boss and others. 

5. Don’t take the whole time given you at lunch. The noon 
hour, when things are quiet, is a fine time to get acquainted with 
your surroundings and pick up a lot of information which will be 
helpful. 

6. Get to work early and quit late. This has probably won 
more boys advancement than any other thing. 

7. Get acquainted with the employees. This might be done 
in this manner: Go to them and say, “I am the new office boy. 
My name is John Jones. If I can help you at any time, don’t 
hesitate to call on me.” Or, “I am the new typist,” etc. 

Of course, your prescribed duties come first. They must not 
be neglected at any time. But by being energetic and awake you 
will learn many things of value, and you will find new and im¬ 
portant duties to perform. If you do only what you are told to 
do you will be a failure. Your success will depend not alone upon 
how you do your prescribed work, but upon how quick you are 
to catch on to many little duties which are incidental and cannot 
be anticipated. 

Remember, as you work, that you are not merely working for 
a firm, you are likewise working for yourself. Everything you 
do for your concern has an effect upon you. Every time you do 
a job Well you better yourself. Every time you go about your 
work in a half-hearted, slovenly fashion you not only hurt the 
concern but you hurt your own progress. When you kill the 
firm’s time you kill your own. When you miss an opportunity 
to do something for the firm you fail to better yourself. 

The first day is the important day. Keep the above points in 
mind, and go about your work determined to make a good im¬ 
pression—determined to make good from the very start. Then 
you are sure to keep your position after you get it,—for every 
applicant is taken at first only on trial. 


202 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


TALK No. 20 by the Morale Officer on 
Office-Grams—Short Reminders 

The following suggestions and hints, covering many “little 
things,” were suggested to the author at various times in observ¬ 
ing young people at work. They are, therefore, taken from real 
business life and should be gone over very carefully. Some of 
these “office-grams” could be amplified considerably, but they are 
perhaps more forceful in their present form. 

1. Don’t be wasteful or extravagant with the stationery and 
supplies. Economize with the firm’s material as though you paid 
for it yourself. 

2. Don’t use printed matter for scratch paper. 

3. Be respectful to the boss and the others in the office. Don’t 
“butt in” at the wrong time. Learn when not to interrupt the 
boss and others. Use tact. Keep your eyes and ears open and 
your mouth shut, but don’t be an eavesdropper. Be on the alert, 
but don’t be “fresh.” Never try to “show off.” 

4. You do not have to tell the boss what you know, or what 
you are learning. He will find it out if you put your knowledge 
into practice. 

5. Don’t ask for time off, or for holidays, too frequently, if 
at all. 

6. Always take your hat or cap off in the elevators and when 
entering the office. It makes no difference whether any one else 
does it or not —yon do it. 

7. Always say “Good morning” when you arrive in the morn¬ 
ing, and don’t forget “Good night” when you leave in the evening. 

8. Always be pleasant and cheerful; even when you do not 
feel like it, put on a happy expression. You will not only feel 
better, but you will make friends. 

9. Don’t be afraid to work overtime. Right here is where so 
many young and old fail—they are afraid to work late some 
nights. Now the person that will stay alive during the day will 
seldom have to work beyond hours. But nearly every firm has 


OFFICE-GRAMS 


203 

its rush season when the employees have to work overtime. The 
success of the business depends upon this overtime work. You 
should be willing to shoulder your part of the extra work. 
You should be more anxious to make good than to get off on time. 
Want to make good on your job and yon will not think so much 
of getting off at a certain hour each day. 

10. Get to work on time. On time means a little ahead of 
time. You will thus be well along with your work when the time 
to begin work arrives. 

11. If there are any other employees in your office, don’t be 
afraid to do their work. Make friends with them and volunteer 
to assist them at any time they need your help. Try to do more 
than your share. If the others are the kind that attempt to throw 
work off on you, take it and make them ashamed of themselves: 
don’t argue with them about it. 

12. You may work in a place where some one in the office is 
grpff and inconsiderate. Never answer back to him when he 
treats you roughly. Answering back never did any good. If 
your superior cannot be patient, show him that you can, and you 
may cure him of this gruffness. Girls, particularly, should be 
careful not to take offense under such circumstances. 

13. Try to do every task as quickly as possible. Put life into 
your actions. Be quick and energetic, not slow and slovenly and 
careless. If you go at slow speed now you will always be slow. 
Be quick, but thorough. 

14. Learn the wants of those in the office and try to anticipate 
their requests. Don’t wait to be told. Try to do things of your 
own accord. Think—use your head. 

15. “I don’t take nothin’ off nobody.” You’ve heard that, 
haven’t you? From a bully, wasn’t it? There never was a more 
contemptible saying. The person who says that and acts that way 
will always get into trouble. Get this: learn to “take” things. 
You will thus avoid trouble and show that you are above the 
bully. 

16. Do not be easily led by others. Have a mind of your 
own. Determine the right course and stick to it. 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


204 

1 7. Be thorough. Don’t half-way tackle anything. Feel when 
you have finished a task or a day’s work that it could not have 
been done better. 

18. Don’t imagine that any one “has it in for you.” You will 
never be discriminated against if you do your best and try at all 
times to please. 

19. Remember that around you are young clerks who are going 
to be the heads of concerns some day. Why not you? 

20. Help the boss or visitors on with their overcoats and hats 
if the opportunity offers. 

21. Do not forget that you are being watched. You may not 
think it, but your employer and others have their eyes on you; 
they are watching you and waiting to see if you have the stuff 
in you. 

22. Keep clean. You may not have fine clothes to wear, but 
you can look neat if you try. Mind the following: 

a. Keep your clothes brushed; 

b. Keep your shoes shined; 

c. Keep your face and hands clean; 

d. Clean your finger nails every day; 

e. Use a tooth brush twice a day. 

23. Don’t be afraid of messy work. If you have to do any 
sweeping or cleaning up, be glad of it, for it will give you an 
opportunity to see how nice you can keep the office. But if you 
do not have to do this work, see how you can improve the looks 
of the office at any and all times during the day. Whenever you 
see a piece of paper on the floor or anything out of place, be 
quick to pick it up or to replace the article. A clerk who will do 
these things is sure to succeed. He is sure to “make a hit with 
the boss.” But remember, do not do these things to the neglect 
of your other work. The truth of the matter is, you can help 
keep the office tidy and not neglect anything else if you keep your 
eyes open. 

24. Don’t watch the clock. Get interested in your work and 
the clock will take care of itself, the time will fly. Don’t allow 


OFFICE-GRAMS 


205 

yourself to think about quitting time: see how much you can do 
and quitting time will come before you know it. 

25. Do not listen to the conversations of the older people in the 
office unless you are sure that your presence is not objected to. 
Even if you are near, go about your work and pay as little attention 
to the conversation as possible. Avoid the appearance of listening. 

26. Don’t go away at night leaving a lot of work to be attended 
to. If possible, stay and finish it. Complete each day’s work as 
you come to it, and if possible get a start on the morrow’s work. 

27. Have a regular place for your hat and coat. Don’t leave 
your hat during the day around on the desks and tables where it 
will be in the way. 

28. Keep the throttle of your energies wide open all the time. 

29. Learn to feel ill at ease when the office is untidy or things 
are out of place. Learn to sense little bits of untidiness so that 
nothing out of place will escape your attention. Some people, 
through long years of carelessness, feel at home in dirt and general 
topsy-turvy conditions. Cultivate an intense dislike for anything 
but a clean, neat office and tidy surroundings. 

30. Don’t be too curious or too easily distracted from your 
work. To some people a parade or a band or the fire wagons are 
like magnets which draw them to the window or sidewalk every 
time they pass. When you stop to consider how little good one 
actually gets out of watching parades and fire wagons, you wonder 
why so many people are so curious about them. Curiosity of this 
kind is for idle people only. 

31. Don’t sit in the boss’s chair, even when he is absent. It 
creates a bad impression. 

32. Don’t read newspapers, extra or regular edition, during 
office hours. You are expected to be waiting ready for instant 
action when called. 

33. Don’t chew gum in the office, and never have it in your 
mouth when talking to older people. 

34. Never put pleasure before business. If you find you have 
to work overtime and you have a date, break the date and work. 
This may be hard to do sometimes, but it is the only way. 


20 6 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


35. Always share anything special that you may have to eat, 
candies, etc., with the others in the office. 

36. Never stand around in a nervous or undecided way when 
you run out of a job. You should have something which you have 
planned to do, but if you haven’t, ask for something to do. If no 
task is given you, better than irritate the boss or others, make a 
pretense of doing something. 

37. Never read over any one’s shoulder. It is very impolite. 

38. Never read letters or papers of any kind on the desks of the 
officers or clerks. 

39. Don’t be afraid to ask questions, but let your questions 
rather show that you are doing some thinking, that you are trying 
to solve problems and study things out for yourself. It is one 
thing to be able to ask a question that shows previous thought, it is 
another to ask foolish questions that clearly indicate that the 
questioner has not been thinking. 

40. When asked to look up a telephone number by the boss or 
others, put it on a piece of paper so that it can be referred to at 
the desired time. If you don’t do it you are very likely to forget 
it or make a mistake. 

41. Whether standing, sitting, or walking, never adopt a lazy 
attitude or position. Look awake. 

42. Don’t talk about the firm or its business to outsiders. Don’t 
brag about how much business you are doing, or what big salaries 
certain ones are getting, etc. 

43. When the boss or some one in authority calls, respond at 
once. Drop what you are doing and attend to the new task. 
Sometimes it may be hard to do, or seem unreasonable, but don’t 
you worry about that. Obey orders and obey them cheerfully, no 
matter how much you may dislike to do so. Don’t get irritable 
over your little difficulties. 

44. If a man steals, he is a thief. And regardless of what he 
steals, he has the thief heart and thief desire. The commonest of 
all thieves is the time-thief, the thief who steals time. Stealing 
time is just as low-down as stealing money—it is in truth stealing 
money, for your time is worth money to your firm ( or is supposed 


OFFICE-GRAMS 


207 

to be), and if you steal it you are taking your firm’s money. Give 
the time-thief a little leeway and he will steal actual money—that 
is the next step. Be careful about how you dispose of your time 
in working hours. 

45. When new persons are employed, do not try to show off 
your knowledge or try to act superior because you are acquainted 
and feel at home. Be friendly and courteous, and leave off all 
of the show. 

46. Do not be too critical of your fellow employees. If you are 
not pleased with their dress or manner or their actions, keep your 
thoughts to yourself. Don’t forget this. It is important. 

47. Some people don’t like to have things explained to them, 
especially by another young employee. They say that they know 
all about it and refuse to listen. This is a very short-sighted and 
“little” way to act. Always keep in mind this thought: “I want to 
learn, I must learn; therefore I’ll use every opportunity that 
presents itself.” By all means do not despise the suggestions or 
assistance of other junior employees. 

48. Always be subject to call, that is, try to be ready when 
wanted. Some boys and girls keep the office force irritated at them 
because they never seem to be around when wanted. Watch this 
point. 

49. If you are helping some one, do not leave that person unless 
you are sure he is through with you. Never run away from a 
task or from your work with others in order that you may follow 
your own desire or bent until you are sure that your assistance is 
no longer needed. 

50. Learn how properly to approach the boss or others in the 
office. Learn to choose the proper time. Many a clerk has lost 
his job because he could never learn how and when to approach 
his elders in the office. 

51. Do not get a new pencil until the one you have is too short 
to use. Don’t take pencils home with you and leave them there 
unconsciously. 

52. Cultivate the spirit of helpfulness. Such a spirit will help 
you make friends, will increase your knowledge of the work, and 


208 


FUNDAMENTALS OF BUSINESS 


will go far towards securing promotion. Do not give in to the 
inclination to sit down and take things easy when your own tasks 
are completed. 

53. Don’t be gossipy. This applies particularly to girls. Avoid 
standing around with a small group talking about other girls or 
criticizing your fellow employees. 

54. To girls: Don’t go to work “overdressed.” Every girl 
should desire to look neat and well dressed. She should take pride 
in her appearance and should certainly always desire to look her 
best. But many girls in business are prone to pay too much atten¬ 
tion to their appearance. Such a girl is quickly “spotted.” Her 
fellow employees smile and wonder who it is she is trying to “make 
a hit with.” 

55. Another hint to girls: Don’t talk dress during working 
hours. Wait until after closing hours to tell your friends all about 
the new hat or the new dress that you are making or that you 
want to buy. 

56. Don’t be jealous of the other employees. If one wins 
success and advancement, be glad with him. Don’t begrudge him 
his progress; and don’t hang around with the others “knocking” 
him and saying that he “has a pull.” If you work hard and do 
your duty, you will be advanced. There is no such thing as “pull” 
in real business. “Pull,” “luck” and all such phrases can be 
expressed in one word— “work” 


THE END 




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